The Modern World, BOU-CHI
Industrialization, nationalism, world war, decolonization, and technological change have made the modern world a time of staggering disruption and reinvention. Explore the forces that shaped it.
The Modern World Encyclopedia Articles By Title
Bourke-White, Margaret
Margaret Bourke-White was an American photographer known for her extensive contributions to photojournalism, particularly......
Boycott
Boycott, collective and organized ostracism applied in labour, economic, political, or social relations to protest......
Boyington, Pappy
Pappy Boyington was an American World War II flying ace who shot down 28 enemy Japanese planes, organized the legendary......
Bradley, Omar
Omar Bradley was a U.S. Army officer who commanded the Twelfth Army Group, which helped ensure the Allied victory......
Branting, Karl Hjalmar
Karl Hjalmar Branting was a Swedish statesman and pioneer of social democracy whose conciliatory international......
Brauchitsch, Walther von
Walther von Brauchitsch was a German field marshal and army commander in chief during the first part of World War......
Braun, Eva
Eva Braun was the mistress and later wife of Adolf Hitler. She was born into a lower middle-class Bavarian family......
Brazil
Brazil, country of South America that occupies half the continentās landmass. It is the fifth largest country in......
- Introduction
- Highlands, Plateaus, Rivers
- Rivers, Amazon, Basin
- Tropical, Rainforest, Humid
- Urbanization, Megacities, Migration
- Migration, Urbanization, Population
- Portuguese, Indigenous, Tupi-Guarani
- Economy, Agriculture, Trade
- Minerals, Mining, Resources
- Agriculture, Coffee, Sugarcane
- Forestry, Amazon, Rainforest
- Manufacturing, Industry, Exports
- Nature, Culture, Adventure
- Shipping, Ports, Trade
- Legislature, Politics, Democracy
- Political Parties, Democracy, Elections
- Education, Literacy, Curriculum
- Culture, Diversity, Music
- Music, Dance, Theater
- Soccer, Carnival, Surfing
- Colonialism, Independence, Republic
- Royal Governors, Jesuits, Slaves
- Farming, Mining, Prospecting
- Independence, Portuguese, Empire
- Empire Collapse, Portuguese Rule, Abolition
- Coffee, Presidents, Economy
- Vargas Era, Politics, Economy
- Kubitschek, Economy, Infrastructure
- Collor, corruption, and inflation
Brest-Litovsk, treaties of
treaties of Brest-Litovsk, peace treaties signed at Brest-Litovsk (now in Belarus) by the Central Powers with the......
Bretton Woods Conference
Bretton Woods Conference, meeting at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire (July 1ā22, 1944), during World War II to make......
Breytenbach, Breyten
Breyten Breytenbach was a South African writer who was a leading Afrikaner poet and critic of apartheid. He spent......
Brezhnev Doctrine
Brezhnev Doctrine, foreign policy put forth by Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev in 1968, calling on the Soviet Union......
Brezhnev, Leonid
Leonid Brezhnev was a Soviet statesman and Communist Party official who was, in effect, the leader of the Soviet......
Briand, Aristide
Aristide Briand was a statesman who served 11 times as premier of France, holding a total of 26 ministerial posts......
Bridge on the River Kwai, The
The Bridge on the River Kwai, British-American war film, released in 1957 and directed by David Lean, that was......
Bridges, Ruby
Ruby Bridges is an American activist and leader who became a symbol of the civil rights movement and who was, at......
Brinon, Fernand de
Fernand de Brinon was a French journalist and politician who became a leading advocate of collaboration with Nazi......
Britain, Battle of
Battle of Britain, during World War II, the successful defense of Great Britain against unremitting and destructive......
Britannica Remembers Nelson Mandela
EncyclopƦdia Britannicaās first biography of Nelson Mandela appeared in print in 1965, published in the Britannica......
British commandos
British commandos, British special operations troops, designed originally to take part in light amphibious raids,......
British Empire
British Empire, a worldwide system of dependenciesācolonies, protectorates, and other territoriesāthat over a span......
British Expeditionary Force
British Expeditionary Force (BEF), the home-based British army forces that went to northern France at the start......
Brooke, Rupert
Rupert Brooke was an English poet, a wellborn, gifted, handsome youth whose early death in World War I contributed......
Brossolette, Pierre
Pierre Brossolette was a leading member of the French Resistance during the German occupation in World War II.......
Brown v. Board of Education
Brown v. Board of Education, case in which, on May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously (9ā0) that......
BruchmĆ¼ller, Georg
Georg BruchmĆ¼ller was a German artillery officer who revolutionized techniques of fire support during World War......
Brusilov Offensive
Brusilov Offensive, the largest Russian assault during World War I, and one of the deadliest in history. It occurred......
Brusilov, Aleksey Alekseyevich
Aleksey Alekseyevich Brusilov was a Russian general distinguished for the āBrusilov breakthroughā on the Eastern......
Bubnov, Andrey Sergeyevich
Andrey Sergeyevich Bubnov was a Bolshevik revolutionary and Communist Party and Soviet government official who......
Bucharest, Treaty of
Treaty of Bucharest, (May 7, 1918), settlement forced upon Romania after it had been defeated by the Central Powers......
Buchenwald
Buchenwald, one of the biggest of the Nazi concentration camps established on German soil. Its name means ābeech......
Buckles, Frank
Frank Buckles was an American serviceman who was the last surviving American veteran of World War I. On August......
Budenny, Semyon Mikhaylovich
Semyon Mikhaylovich Budenny was a Red Army officer who played a prominent role in the Russian Civil War (1918ā20)......
Bukharin, Nikolay
Nikolay Bukharin was a Bolshevik and Marxist theoretician and economist, who was a prominent leader of the Communist......
Bulganin, Nikolay Aleksandrovich
Nikolay Aleksandrovich Bulganin was a statesman and industrial and economic administrator who was premier of the......
Bulgaria
Bulgaria, country occupying the eastern portion of the Balkan Peninsula in southeastern Europe. Founded in the......
- Introduction
- Ethnic Groups, Language, Religion
- Agriculture, Industry, Tourism
- Finance, Economy, Trade
- Politics, Constitution, Democracy
- Culture, Traditions, Cuisine
- Folklore, Music, Dance
- Ottoman Empire, Balkan Wars, Communism
- Slavs, Byzantines, Khanate
- Medieval, Orthodox, Balkan
- National Revival, Culture, History
- San Stefano, Berlin, Treaties
- Ottoman Rule, National Revival, Balkan Wars
- WWI, Balkan Wars, Treaty of Neuilly
- Communism, Reforms, Democracy
- WWII, Axis, Allies
- Communism, Soviet Union, Balkan Region
- Communist Rule, Reforms, Transition
- Transition, Reforms, EU
Bulge, Battle of the
Battle of the Bulge, (December 16, 1944āJanuary 16, 1945), the last major German offensive on the Western Front......
Bundy, McGeorge
McGeorge Bundy was an American public official and educator, one of the main architects of U.S. foreign policy......
Burgess, Guy
Guy Burgess was a British diplomat who spied for the Soviet Union in World War II and early in the Cold War period.......
Burma Railway
Burma Railway, railway built during World War II connecting Bangkok and Moulmein (now Mawlamyine), Burma (Myanmar).......
Burma Road
Burma Road, highway linking Lashio, in eastern Burma (now Myanmar), with Kunming, in Yunnan province, China, a......
Bush, George H.W.
George H.W. Bush was a politician and businessman who was vice president of the United States (1981ā89) and the......
Bush, George W.
George W. Bush is the 43rd president of the United States (2001ā09), who led his countryās response to the September......
Buthelezi, Mangosuthu
Mangosuthu Buthelezi was a Zulu chief, South African politician, and leader of the Inkatha Freedom Party (1975ā2019).......
Byng of Vimy, Julian Hedworth George Byng, Viscount
Julian Hedworth George Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy was a British field marshal and a commander in World War I.......
Byrnes, James F.
James F. Byrnes was a Democratic Party politician and administrator who, during World War II, was popularly known......
BĆ”rdossy, LĆ”szlĆ³
LĆ”szlĆ³ BĆ”rdossy was a Hungarian politician who played a key role in bringing his country into World War II as an......
C-47
C-47, U.S. military transport aircraft that served in all theatres during World War II and continued in service......
Cadorna, Luigi
Luigi Cadorna was a general who completely reorganized Italyās ill-prepared army on the eve of World War I and......
Cairncross, John
John Cairncross was a British literary scholar and civil servant who was identified in the 1990s as the āfifth......
Cairo Conference
Cairo Conference, (NovemberāDecember 1943), either of two meetings of Allied leaders held in Cairo during World......
Cambodian genocide
The Cambodian genocide was a period of mass death in Cambodia from 1975 to 1979 under the Khmer Rouge government......
Cambrai, Battle of
Battle of Cambrai, military engagement in northern France that took place during World War I from September 27......
Cambrai, Battle of
Battle of Cambrai, British offensive (NovemberāDecember 1917) on the Western Front during World War I that marked......
Camp David Accords
Camp David Accords, agreements between Israel and Egypt signed on September 17, 1978, that led in the following......
Campus Antiwar Network
Campus Antiwar Network (CAN), college- and university-based antiwar organization in the United States that was......
Canada
Canada, the second largest country in the world in area (after Russia), occupying roughly the northern two-fifths......
- Introduction
- Land, Climate, People
- Relief, Geography, Landforms
- Rivers, Lakes, Drainage
- Climate, Arctic, Subarctic
- Soils, Plant, Animal Life
- Indigenous Peoples, Culture, History
- Settlement, Regions, Provinces
- Immigration, Multiculturalism, Diversity
- Natural Resources, Trade, Manufacturing
- Farming, Forestry, Fishing
- Resources, Power, Economy
- Trade, Resources, Economy
- Labour, Taxation, Economy
- Railways, Airports, Telecommunications
- Federalism, Multiculturalism, Provinces
- Local Gov, Provinces, Territories
- Political Process, Federalism, Provinces
- Security, Geography, Politics
- Health, Welfare, Equality
- Education, Schools, Universities
- Multiculturalism, Indigenous Peoples, Arctic
- Multiculturalism, Diversity, Inclusivity
- Arts, Culture, Heritage
- Art, Sculpture, Painting
- Theater, Music, Dance
- Cultural Institutions
- Sports, Recreation, Nature
- Media, Publishing, Culture
- Exploration, Confederation, Multiculturalism
- Exploration, French Colonization, Champlain
- Exploration, Fur Trade, Colonization
- French Settlement, Culture, Diversity
- Royal Control, Provinces, Dominion
- Anglo-French, Rivalry, Colonization
- French, Indian, Seven Years War
- British Rule, 1763-91
- National Growth, 19th Century
- Fur Trade, Montreal, Exploration
- War of 1812, British-American Conflict, Treaty of Ghent
- Rebellions, 1837-38
- Federation, Provinces, Territories
- Confederation, WWI, Immigration
- Transcontinental Railway, Expansion, Immigration
- Klondike, Gold Rush, Yukon
- Laurier, Politics, Economy
- Foreign Relations, Trade, Immigration
- WWI, Military, Recruitment
- Interwar, Wars, WWI/II
- WWII, Allies, Conscription
- Postwar, Developments, Economy
- Foreign Relations, Trade, Immigration
- US Relations, Trade, Immigration
- Diversity, Confederation, Arctic
- Franco-Canadian, Bilingualism, Multiculturalism
- Quebec Separatism
- Trudeau, Politics, Economy
- Interregnum, Progressive, Conservative
- Politics, Economy, Geography
- Arctic, Provinces, Economy
- Jean Chretien, Paul Martin, 1993-2006
- Politics, Economy, Immigration
- The administration of Justin Trudeau
- Prime Ministers, Politics, History
Canaris, Wilhelm
Wilhelm Canaris was a German admiral, head of military intelligence (Abwehr) under the Nazi regime and a key participant......
Caporetto, Battle of
Battle of Caporetto, (October 24āDecember 19, 1917), Italian military disaster during World War I in which Italian......
Cardin, Ben
Ben Cardin is an American politician who represented Maryland as a Democrat to the U.S. Senate (2007ā25). He previously......
Carlson, Evans
Evans Carlson was a U.S. Marine officer during World War II who led guerrilla fighters (Carlsonās Raiders) on daring......
Carmichael, Stokely
Stokely Carmichael was a West-Indian-born civil rights activist, leader of Black nationalism in the United States......
Carney, Robert Bostwick
Robert Bostwick Carney was a U.S. Navy admiral and military strategist during World War II. After graduation from......
Carr, E.H.
E.H. Carr was a British political scientist and historian specializing in modern Russian history. He joined the......
Carrington, Peter Carington, 6th Baron
Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington was a British politician who was secretary-general of the North Atlantic......
Carter Doctrine
Carter Doctrine, foreign policy initiative of the United States, introduced by U.S. President Jimmy Carter in his......
Casablanca Conference
Casablanca Conference, (January 12ā23, 1943), meeting during World War II in Casablanca, Morocco, between U.S.......
Castle Itter, Battle for
Battle for Castle Itter, World War II military engagement in which U.S. soldiers joined forces with renegade German......
Castries, Christian de
Christian de Castries was a French army officer who commanded during World War II and later in the Indochina War.......
casualties of World War II
World War II, the deadliest and most destructive war in human history, claimed between 40 and 50 million lives,......
Catroux, Georges
Georges Catroux was a French general and diplomat, one of the highest-ranking officers in the Free French government......
Causes of the Great Depression
The Great Depression of the late 1920s and ā30s remains the longest and most severe economic downturn in modern......
Cavell, Edith
Edith Cavell was an English nurse who became a popular heroine of World War I and was executed for assisting Allied......
Cecil, Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 1st Viscount
Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil was a British statesman and winner of the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1937.......
CENTCOM
CENTCOM, the portion of the U.S. military responsible for protecting American security interests in an area stretching......
Central Powers
Central Powers, World War I coalition that consisted primarily of the German Empire and Austria-Hungary, the ācentralā......
CG-4
CG-4, the principal U.S.-built glider of World War II. It was used in airborne operations to deliver assault troops......
Chaban-Delmas, Jacques
Jacques Chaban-Delmas was a French politician, president of the National Assembly, and premier. Delmas was educated......
Chamberlain, Neville
Neville Chamberlain was the prime minister of the United Kingdom from May 28, 1937, to May 10, 1940, whose name......
Chambers, Whittaker
Whittaker Chambers was an American journalist, Communist Party member, Soviet agent, and a principal figure in......
Charles
Charles (I) was the emperor (Kaiser) of Austria and, as Charles IV, king of Hungary, the last ruler of the Austro-Hungarian......
Chautemps, Camille
Camille Chautemps was a French politician who served three times as premier of France and played a controversial......
Checkpoint Charlie
Checkpoint Charlie, the best known official crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold......
Chelmno
Chelmno, Nazi German extermination camp on the Ner River, a tributary of the Warta, in German-occupied western......
Chen Boda
Chen Boda was a revolutionist and propagandist who became the chief interpreter of the āthought of Mao Zedongā......
Chen Yi
Chen Yi was one of the outstanding Chinese communist military commanders of the 1930s and ā40s. He was a party......
Cheney, Dick
Dick Cheney was the 46th vice president of the United States (2001ā09) in the Republican administration of Pres.......
Chennault, Claire L.
Claire L. Chennault was a U.S. major general who commanded the U.S. Army Air Forces in China (1942ā45) and created......
Cher Ami
Cher Ami, American military homing pigeon used by the U.S. Army Signal Corps during World War I (1914ā18). The......
Chernenko, Konstantin
Konstantin Chernenko was the chief political leader of the Soviet Union from February 1984 until his death in 1985.......
Chernomyrdin, Viktor Stepanovich
Viktor Stepanovich Chernomyrdin was a Soviet industrial administrator who served as prime minister of Russia from......
Chetnik
Chetnik, member of a Serbian nationalist guerrilla force that formed during World War II to resist the Axis invaders......
Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek was a soldier and statesman, head of the Nationalist government in China from 1928 to 1949 and......
Chicago Defender
Chicago Defender, the most influential African American newspaper during the early and mid-20th century. Founded......
Chicago Seven
The Chicago Seven was a group of political activists who were arrested for their antiwar activities during the......
Chicherin, Georgy Vasilyevich
Georgy Vasilyevich Chicherin was a diplomat who executed Soviet foreign policy from 1918 until 1928. An aristocrat......
Chile
Chile, long, narrow country stretching along the western edge of South America, bordered by the Andes Mountains......
- Introduction
- Intermediate Depression, Andes, Pacific
- Soils, Climate, Geology
- Patagonia, Andes, Pacific
- Urbanization, Migration, Regions
- Indigenous, Mestizo, European
- Copper, Nitrates, Lithium
- Trade, Finance, Economy
- Education, Literacy, Universities
- Skiing, Hiking, Surfing
- Colonial, Spanish, Pacific
- Independence, Revolution, War
- Conservative, Heterodoxy, Revolution
- War of Pacific, Bolivia, Peru
- Depression, Economy, Politics
- Political Groupings, Reforms, Democracy
- Military Dictatorship, 1973-90
- Andes, Pacific Coast, Patagonia
China
China, country of East Asia. It is the largest of all Asian countries. Occupying nearly the entire East Asian landmass,......
- Introduction
- Mountains, Plateaus, Rivers
- Eastern Region, Geography, Culture
- Sichuan Basin, Agriculture, Population
- Junggar Basin, Xinjiang, Gobi Desert
- Soil Types, Climate, Erosion
- Climate, Temperature, Variation
- Rainfall, Monsoon, Climate
- Wildlife, Mammals, Birds
- Sino-Tibetan, Ethnic Groups, Geography
- Altaic, Ethnic Groups, Geography
- Urbanization, Megacities, Population
- Population, Geography, Regions
- Government, Economy, Politics
- Economic Reforms, Growth, Trade
- Farming, Crops, Fisheries
- Minerals, Resources, Mining
- Manufacturing, Industry, Exports
- Trade, Silk Road, Manufacturing
- Railways, Expansion, Network
- Rivers, Canals, Lakes
- Posts, Telecommunications, Infrastructure
- Constitution, Government, Politics
- Administration, Regions, Provinces
- Health, Welfare, Population
- Education, Literacy, Schools
- Culture, Traditions, History
- Art, Sculpture, Painting
- Cultural Institutions
- Dynasties, Revolution, Communism
- Ancient Sites, Dynasties, Artifacts
- Ancient History, Dynasties, Civilization
- Religion, Social Structure
- Shang Dynasty, Oracle Bones, Bronze Age
- Divination, Religion, Shang
- Ancient Dynasties, Rituals, Oracle Bones
- Feudalism, Zhou Dynasty, Confucianism
- Cultural, Political, Social Changes
- Dynasties, Emperors, Civilization
- Qin Empire, 221-207 BCE
- Han Dynasty, Silk Road, Confucianism
- Ancient Dynasties, Silk Road, Confucianism
- Dynasties, Emperors, History
- Dynasties, Culture, Economy
- Provincial Government, Autonomy, Regions
- Government, Politics, Bureaucracy
- Relations, Peoples, Trade
- Dynasties, Art, Religion
- Six Dynasties, Han, Tang
- Shiliuguo, Sixteen Kingdoms, 303-439
- Daoism, Philosophy, Religion
- Sui Dynasty, Grand Canal, Reunification
- Foreign Affairs, Yangdi, Expansion
- Administration, Politics, Regions
- Dynasties, Reforms, Economy
- Empress Wuhou, Tang Dynasty, Unification
- Economic Growth, Reforms, Infrastructure
- Provincial Separatism
- Central Authority, Dynasties, Warlords
- Arts, Culture, Traditions
- Migration, Urbanization, Ruralization
- Five Dynasties, Ten Kingdoms
- Tangut, Khitan, Juchen
- Song Dynasty, Economy, Culture
- Consolidation, Expansion, Revolution
- Decline, Fall, Qing Dynasty
- Survival, Consolidation, Reforms
- Juchen Relations, Dynasties, Trade
- Dynasties, Emperors, Rulers
- Bureaucracy, Imperialism, Dynasties
- Neo-Confucianism, Philosophy, Education
- Song Culture, Art, Economy
- Yuan Dynasty, Mongol Rule, Silk Road
- Invasion, Song, Dynasty
- Mongol Empire, Yuan Dynasty, Expansion
- Manufacturing, Exports, Imports
- Buddhism, Monasteries, Philosophy
- Ancient, Poetry, Novels
- Trade, Expansion, Mongols
- Mongol Rule, Dynasties, Imperialism
- Dynastic Succession, History, Culture
- Government, Administration, Politics
- Innovations, Technology, Economy
- Relations, Diplomacy, Trade
- Economic Reforms, Growth, Trade
- Coinage, Currency, Mints
- Literature, Scholarship, Classics
- Manchu Dynasty, Expansion, Cultural Revolution
- Economic Reform, Industrialization, Urbanization
- Dynastic Rule, Social Hierarchy, Confucianism
- Population, Economy, Culture
- Opium War, Aftermath, Treaty
- Uprising, Revolution, Democracy
- Muslim Rebellions
- Foreign Relations, 1860s
- Tibet, Nepal, Himalayas
- Japan, Ryukyu, Islands
- Reform, 1898, Dynasty
- Reform, Revolution, Dynasty
- Revolution, 1911-12, Republic
- WWI, Neutrality, Treaty
- Civil War, Nationalists, Communists
- Riots, Protests, Repression
- Communist, Nationalist, Cooperation
- Reorganization, KMT, Politics
- Northern Expedition, Warlord Era, Kuomintang
- Nationalist, 1928-1937
- Civil War, Nationalists, Communists
- Stagnation, Reforms, Economy
- U.S. Aid, Relations, Trade
- Nationalism, Deterioration, Revolution
- Civil War, Revolution, Mao Zedong
- Civil War, Revolution, Communism
- Land Reform, Revolution, Economy
- Revolution, Communism, Mao
- Reconstruction, Consolidation, 1949-52
- Socialism, Transition, Revolution
- Politics, Reforms, Revolution
- Reforms, Modernization, Industrialization
- Cultural Revolution, Maoism, Communism
- Cultural Revolution, Mao, Communism
- Political Repression, Cultural Revolution, Maoism
- Urbanization, Reforms, Industrialization
- Struggle, Premiership, Politics
- Consequences, Revolution, Impact
- Economic Reforms, Marketization, Privatization
- Education, Cultural Reforms, Policies
- Leaders, 1949, PRC
Chinese Civil War
Chinese Civil War, (1945ā49) was a military struggle for control of China waged between the Nationalists (Kuomintang)......
Chinese Communist Party
Chinese Communist Party (CCP), political party of China. Since the establishment of the Peopleās Republic of China......