The Modern World, ROK-SMI
Industrialization, nationalism, world war, decolonization, and technological change have made the modern world a time of staggering disruption and reinvention. Explore the forces that shaped it.
The Modern World Encyclopedia Articles By Title
Rokossovsky, Konstantin Konstantinovich
Konstantin Konstantinovich Rokossovsky was a Soviet military commander noted for his role in the Battle of Stalingrad......
Roma
Roma, an ethnic group of traditionally itinerant people who originated in northern India but in modern times live......
Romania
Romania, country of southeastern Europe. The national capital is Bucharest. Romania was occupied by Soviet troops......
- Introduction
- Carpathians, Danube, Black Sea
- Rivers, Danube, Black Sea
- Rural, Urban, Transylvania
- Farming, Livestock, Fisheries
- Trade, Agriculture, Industry
- Politics, Constitution, Elections
- Traditions, Cuisine, Culture
- Cultural Institutions
- Ethnicity, Culture, History
- Transylvania, Romanians, History
- Transylvania, Carpathians, Danube
- Communist Rule, Securitate, Ceausescu
- National Communism, Dictatorship, Securitate
- Constitution, Politics, Reforms
Romanov dynasty
Romanov dynasty, rulers of Russia from 1613 until the Russian Revolution of February 1917. Descendants of Andrey......
Rome-Berlin Axis
Rome-Berlin Axis, Coalition formed in 1936 between Italy and Germany. An agreement formulated by Italy’s foreign......
Rommel, Erwin
Erwin Rommel was a German field marshal who became the most popular general at home and gained the open respect......
Roosevelt, Franklin D.
Franklin D. Roosevelt was the 32nd president of the United States (1933–45). The only president elected to the......
Rosa Parks, the Montgomery Bus Boycott, and the Birth of the Civil Rights Movement
On the evening of December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, a 42-year-old African American seamstress and civil rights activist......
Rosenberg, Alfred
Alfred Rosenberg was a German ideologist of Nazism. Born the son of a cobbler in what was at the time a part of......
Rosie the Riveter
Rosie the Riveter, media icon associated with female defense workers during World War II. Since the 1940s Rosie......
Roundtree, Dovey Johnson
Dovey Johnson Roundtree was an American lawyer, civil rights activist, military officer, minister, and an important......
Rubin, Jerry
Jerry Rubin was an American political activist turned businessman who gained his widest renown from the anti-Vietnam......
Ruhr occupation
Ruhr occupation, (1923–25) occupation of the industrial Ruhr River valley region in Germany by French and Belgian......
Rumsfeld, Donald
Donald Rumsfeld was a U.S. government official who served as secretary of defense (1975–77; 2001–06) in the Republican......
Rundstedt, Gerd von
Gerd von Rundstedt was a German field marshal who was one of Adolf Hitler’s ablest leaders during World War II.......
Rusk, Dean
Dean Rusk was the U.S. secretary of state during the John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson administrations who became......
Russia
Russia, country that stretches over a vast expanse of eastern Europe and northern Asia. Once the preeminent republic......
- Introduction
- Ural Mountains, Natural Resources, Climate
- Climate, Continental, Arctic
- Forests, Biodiversity, Taiga
- Orthodoxy, Paganism, Islam
- Energy, Manufacturing, Agriculture
- Manufacturing, Industry, Resources
- Federalism, Autonomy, Diversity
- Justice, Law, Courts
- Housing, Urbanization, Architecture
- Culture, Traditions, Arts
- Culture, Traditions, Cuisine
- Folk, Classical, Choral
- Art, Architecture, Iconography
- Film Industry, Cinema, Movies
- Sports, Recreation, Culture
- Soviet Union, Tsardom, Revolution
- Kiev Decline, Slavic Tribes, Mongol Invasion
- Novgorod, History, Culture
- Tatar Rule, Mongol Invasion, Golden Horde
- Rurikid, Muscovy, Expansion
- Ivan IV, Tsardom, Expansion
- Time of Troubles, Ivan IV, Dynastic Crisis
- Romanov, Muscovy, Tsardom
- The Great Schism, Orthodoxy, Autocracy
- The Petrine state
- Peter's Reforms, Tsars, Expansion
- Catherine II, Enlightenment, Expansion
- Administration, Reforms, Expansion
- Russia from 1801 to 1917
- Expansion, Tsars, Revolution
- From Alexander II to Nicholas II
- Russification, Policies, Imperialism
- Tsardom, Revolution, Soviet Union
- Revolution, Tsarism, Autocracy
- Soviet Union, Cold War, Eurasia
- Civil War, War Communism, Revolution
- Stalinism, Soviet Union, Cold War
- Khrushchev, Soviet Union, Cold War
- Perestroika, Glasnost, Reforms
- Post-Soviet Russia
- Ethnic Diversity, Near Abroad, Post-Soviet States
- Politics, Economy, Geography
- Politics, Economy, Geography
- Tsars, Soviets, Putin
Russian Civil War
Russian Civil War, (1918–20), conflict in which the Red Army successfully defended the newly formed Bolshevik government......
Russian Empire
Russian Empire, historical empire founded on November 2 (October 22, Old Style), 1721, when the Russian Senate......
- Introduction
- Peter I, Expansion, Reforms
- Expansion, Reforms, Revolution
- Catherine the Great, Expansion, Reforms
- Tsar Paul, Reforms, Expansion
- Nationalism, Reaction, Reforms
- Autocracy, Reforms, Nicholas I
- Alexander II, Reforms, Autocracy
- Revolution, Movements, Tsars
- Expansion, Reforms, Revolution
- Alexander III, Autocracy, Reforms
- Nicholas II, Autocracy, Reforms
- Russification, Autocracy, Centralization
- Revolution, 1905, Dumas
- Tsar, Revolution, WWI
Russian Provisional Government
Russian Provisional Government, internationally recognized government of Russia from February to October (March......
Russian Revolution
Russian Revolution, two revolutions in 1917, the first of which, in February (March, New Style), overthrew the......
Russo-Finnish War
Russo-Finnish War, (November 30, 1939–March 12, 1940), war waged by the Soviet Union against Finland at the beginning......
Russo-Polish War
Russo-Polish War, (1919–20), military conflict between Soviet Russia and Poland. It was the result of the German......
Rustin, Bayard
Bayard Rustin was an American civil rights activist who was an adviser to Martin Luther King, Jr., and who was......
Rutte, Mark
Mark Rutte is a Dutch politician who drew praise for his chameleonic ability to find common ground and broker unlikely......
Rykov, Aleksey Ivanovich
Aleksey Ivanovich Rykov was a Bolshevik leader who became a prominent Soviet official after the Russian Revolution......
Ryzhkov, Nikolai
Nikolai Ryzhkov was the premier of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. During his tenure, the U.S.S.R. faced an......
Röhm, Ernst
Ernst Röhm was a German army officer and chief organizer of Adolf Hitler’s Storm Troopers (Sturmabteilung, or SA;......
SA
SA, in the German Nazi Party, a paramilitary organization whose methods of violent intimidation played a key role......
Sachs, Nelly
Nelly Sachs was a German poet and dramatist who became a poignant spokesperson for the grief and yearnings of her......
Sachsenhausen
Sachsenhausen, one of the major Nazi German concentration camps, located at the edge of Oranienburg, 21 miles (34......
Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein was the president of Iraq (1979–2003) whose brutal rule was marked by costly and unsuccessful wars......
Sadr, Muqtada al-
Muqtada al-Sadr is an Iraqi Shiʿi leader and cleric. He was considered one of the most powerful political figures......
Sahlins, Marshall
Marshall Sahlins was an American anthropologist, educator, activist, and author who through his study of the people......
Saigon, Fall of
Fall of Saigon, capture of Saigon, the capital of the Republic of South Vietnam, by North Vietnamese forces, which......
Saint-Germain, Treaty of
Treaty of Saint-Germain, (1919), treaty concluding World War I and signed by representatives of Austria on one......
Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne, Agreement of
Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne, (April 1917), pact concluded at Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne, on the French-Italian......
Saint-Mihiel, Battle of
Battle of Saint-Mihiel, Allied victory and the first U.S.-led offensive in World War I, fought from September 12......
Sainte-Marie, Buffy
Buffy Sainte-Marie is an American singer-songwriter, guitarist, political activist, and visual artist known especially......
Saipan, Battle of
Battle of Saipan, capture of the island of Saipan during World War II by U.S. Marine and Army units from June 15......
Sakharov, Andrey
Andrey Sakharov was a Soviet nuclear theoretical physicist, an outspoken advocate of human rights, civil liberties,......
Salandra, Antonio
Antonio Salandra was an Italian statesman who was premier at the beginning of World War I (1914–16). Salandra was......
Salisbury, Harrison E.
Harrison E. Salisbury was an American author and journalist who, as a foreign correspondent, played a major role......
Salmuth, Hans von
Hans von Salmuth was a German army staff officer and field commander in World War II. The son of a Prussian officer,......
Sauckel, Fritz
Fritz Sauckel was a Nazi politician who was Adolf Hitler’s chief recruiter of slave labour during World War II.......
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, arid, sparsely populated kingdom of the Middle East that in the 20th century became one of the world’s......
- Introduction
- Desert, Arid, Climate
- Islam, Sunnis, Shiites
- Oil, Trade, Investment
- Manufacturing, Oil, Refining
- Monarchy, Sharia, Tribes
- Politics, Processes, Reforms
- Housing, Urbanization, Deserts
- Culture, Traditions, Customs
- Wahhabi, Islam, Arabian Peninsula
- Faysal's Legacy, Reforms, Oil
- Deserts, Oil, Religion
- Foreign Affairs, GCC, Oil
- Persian Gulf War, Aftermath
- Gulf War, Foreign Policy, Middle East
- Monarchy, Reforms, Oil
- Crown Prince, MBS, Reforms
Sazonov, Sergey Dmitriyevich
Sergey Dmitriyevich Sazonov was a statesman and diplomat, Russia’s minister of foreign affairs (1910–16) during......
Scharnhorst
Scharnhorst, German battle cruiser completed in 1939. It did great damage to Allied shipping in northern waters......
Scheer, Reinhard
Reinhard Scheer was an admiral who commanded the German High Seas Fleet at the Battle of Jutland (1916). Scheer......
Schiltberger, Johann
Johann Schiltberger was a German nobleman whose Reisebuch (“Travel Book”), describing his journeys through areas......
Schindler, Oskar
Oskar Schindler was a German industrialist who, aided by his wife and staff, sheltered approximately 1,100 Jews......
Schirach, Baldur von
Baldur von Schirach was a Nazi politician and head of the Nazi youth movement. The son of a German theatre director......
Schlieffen Plan
Schlieffen Plan, battle plan first proposed in 1905 by Alfred, Graf (count) von Schlieffen, chief of the German......
Schlieffen, Alfred von
Alfred von Schlieffen was a German officer and head of the general staff who developed the plan of attack (Schlieffen......
Schroeder, Patricia
Patricia Schroeder was a U.S. politician who was the first woman elected to Congress from Colorado, serving in......
Schwarzkopf, Norman
Norman Schwarzkopf was a U.S. Army officer who commanded Operation Desert Storm, the American-led military action......
Second Sino-Japanese War
Second Sino-Japanese War, (1937–45), conflict that broke out when China began a full-scale resistance to the expansion......
Securities and Exchange Commission
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), U.S. regulatory commission established by Congress in 1934 after the......
Security Council, United Nations
United Nations Security Council, United Nations (UN) organ whose primary responsibility is the maintenance of international......
segregation, Racial
Racial segregation, the practice of restricting people to certain circumscribed areas of residence or to separate......
Selective Service Acts
Selective Service Acts, U.S. federal laws that instituted conscription, or compulsory military service. Conscription......
Selma March
Selma March, political march from Selma, Alabama, to the state’s capital, Montgomery, that occurred March 21–25,......
September 11 attacks
September 11 attacks, series of airline hijackings and suicide attacks committed in 2001 by 19 militants associated......
Sergeant Stubby
Sergeant Stubby was a stray dog whose heroic service during World War I (1914–18) saved lives and even led to the......
Sergius
Sergius was a theologian and patriarch of Moscow and the Russian Orthodox church who, by his leadership in rallying......
Sevareid, Eric
Eric Sevareid was an American broadcast journalist, an eloquent commentator and scholarly writer with Columbia......
seventeenth parallel
seventeenth parallel, the provisional military demarcation line established in Vietnam by the Geneva Accords (1954).......
Seymour, David
David Seymour was a Polish-born American photojournalist who is best known for his empathetic pictures of people,......
Seyss-Inquart, Arthur
Arthur Seyss-Inquart was an Austrian Nazi leader who was chancellor of Austria during the Anschluss (annexation......
Sforza, Carlo, Conte
Conte Carlo Sforza was an Italian diplomat and statesman, an exile during the Fascist era, who became a major figure......
Shalamov, Varlam
Varlam Shalamov was a Russian writer best known for a series of short stories about imprisonment in Soviet labour......
Shalikashvili, John
John Shalikashvili was a U.S. Army officer who served as supreme allied commander of North Atlantic Treaty Organization......
Shaplen, Robert Modell
Robert Modell Shaplen was an American journalist whose incisive reporting made him one of the most-respected Asia......
Sharon, Ariel
Ariel Sharon was an Israeli general and politician, whose public life was marked by brilliant but controversial......
Sharpeville massacre
Sharpeville massacre, incident on March 21, 1960, in the Black township of Sharpeville, near Vereeniging, South......
Shcharansky, Anatoly
Anatoly Shcharansky is a Soviet dissident, a human-rights advocate who was imprisoned (1977–86) by the Soviet government......
Sheehan, Cindy
Cindy Sheehan is an American peace activist whose public opposition to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan began after......
Shelepin, Aleksandr Nikolayevich
Aleksandr Nikolayevich Shelepin was a Soviet government official who led the Komsomol (Young Communist League;......
Sherman tank
Sherman tank, main battle tank designed and built by the United States for the conduct of World War II. The M4......
Shevardnadze, Eduard
Eduard Shevardnadze was a Georgian politician, who was foreign minister of the Soviet Union (1985–90, 1991) and......
Shigemitsu Mamoru
Shigemitsu Mamoru was a Japanese diplomat who served as minister of foreign affairs in various cabinets and was......
Shinseki, Eric K.
Eric K. Shinseki is a U.S. Army officer who was the first Asian American to achieve the rank of four-star general.......
Shotwell, James Thomson
James Thomson Shotwell was a Canadian-born American historian and diplomat who was a notable scholar of international......
Shultz, George
George Shultz was an American government official, economist, and business executive who, as a member of the presidential......
Shuttlesworth, Fred
Fred Shuttlesworth was an American minister and civil rights activist who established, with Martin Luther King,......
Sicily, Allied invasion of
Allied invasion of Sicily, (July 9–August 17, 1943), during World War II, the invasion of the Italian island of......
Siegfried Line
Siegfried Line, system of pillboxes and strongpoints built along the German western frontier in the 1930s and greatly......
Sikorski, Władysław
Władysław Sikorski was a Polish soldier and statesman who led Poland’s government in exile during World War II.......
Simpson, William Hood
William Hood Simpson was an American army officer who commanded the Ninth Army during World War II, which became,......
Sims, William Sowden
William Sowden Sims was an admiral whose persistent efforts to improve ship design, fleet tactics, and naval gunnery......
Sinai Peninsula
Sinai Peninsula, triangular peninsula linking Africa with Asia and occupying an area of 23,500 square miles (61,000......
Siskind, Aaron
Aaron Siskind was an influential American teacher, editor, and photographer who is best known for his innovations......
Sistani, Ali al-
Ali al-Sistani is an Iranian-born Shiʿi cleric and a leader of the Iraqi Shiʿi community. Born to a prominent religious......
sit-in movement
sit-in movement, nonviolent movement of the U.S. civil rights era that began in Greensboro, North Carolina, in......
Six-Day War
Six-Day War, brief war that took place June 5–10, 1967, and was the third of the Arab-Israeli wars. Israel’s decisive......
Skorzeny, Otto
Otto Skorzeny was a Nazi SS officer, who gained fame in 1943 for his daring rescue of Benito Mussolini from confinement......
Slessor, Sir John Cotesworth
Sir John Cotesworth Slessor was a British marshal of the Royal Air Force (RAF) who was one of the architects of......
Slovakia
Slovakia, landlocked country of central Europe. It is roughly coextensive with the historic region of Slovakia,......
Slovenia
Slovenia, country in central Europe that was part of Yugoslavia for most of the 20th century. Slovenia is a small......
Smith, Walter Bedell
Walter Bedell Smith was a U.S. Army general, diplomat, and administrator who served as chief of staff for U.S.......