The Modern World, NGU-PER
Industrialization, nationalism, world war, decolonization, and technological change have made the modern world a time of staggering disruption and reinvention. Explore the forces that shaped it.
The Modern World Encyclopedia Articles By Title
Nguyen Khanh
Nguyen Khanh was a military and political leader who participated in a successful coup d’état against the South......
Nguyen Van Thieu
Nguyen Van Thieu was the president of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) from 1967 until the republic fell......
Nicaragua
Nicaragua, country of Central America. It is the largest of the Central American republics. Nicaragua can be characterized......
Nicholas
Nicholas was a Russian grand duke and army officer who served as commander in chief against the Germans and Austro-Hungarians......
Nicholas I
Nicholas I was a prince (1860–1910) and then king (1910–18) of Montenegro, who transformed his small principality......
Nicholas II
Nicholas II was the last Russian emperor (1894–1917), who, with his wife, Alexandra, and their children, was killed......
Night and Fog Decree
Night and Fog Decree, secret order issued by Adolf Hitler on December 7, 1941, under which “persons endangering......
Night of the Long Knives
Night of the Long Knives, in German history, purge of Nazi leaders by Adolf Hitler on June 30, 1934. Fearing that......
Nimitz, Chester W
Chester W. Nimitz was the commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet during World War II. One of the navy’s foremost administrators......
Nisei
Nisei, (Japanese: “second-generation”), son or daughter of Japanese immigrants who was born and educated in the......
Nixon Doctrine
Nixon Doctrine, a foreign policy of the U.S. government, announced by U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon in 1969, whereby......
Nixon, Richard
Richard Nixon was the 37th president of the United States (1969–74), who, faced with almost certain impeachment......
Noel-Baker, Philip John Noel-Baker, Baron
Philip John Noel-Baker, Baron Noel-Baker was a British statesman and advocate of international disarmament who......
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Treaty on the
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, agreement of July 1, 1968, signed by the United Kingdom, the......
Normandy Invasion
Normandy Invasion, during World War II, the Allied invasion of western Europe, which was launched on June 6, 1944......
Normandy Massacres
Normandy Massacres, execution of as many as 156 Canadian soldiers by German forces that had taken them prisoner......
Norodom Sihanouk
Norodom Sihanouk was twice king of Cambodia (1941–55 and 1993–2004), who also served as prime minister, head of......
Norstad, Lauris
Lauris Norstad was a U.S. Air Force general, commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forces......
North Africa campaigns
North Africa campaigns, (1940–43), in World War II, series of battles for control of North Africa. At stake was......
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), military alliance established in 1949 that sought to create a counterweight......
North Korea
North Korea, country in East Asia. It occupies the northern portion of the Korean peninsula, which juts out from......
- Introduction
- Demographics, Culture, Religion
- Economy, Resources, Trade
- Resources, Power, Economy
- Politics, Economy, Society
- Local Govt, Divisions, Autonomy
- Culture, Traditions, Religion
- Politics, Economy, Kim Il-Sung
- Nuclear, Juche, Reunification
- Relations, South, Tensions
- Nuclear Program, Arms Race, Sanctions
- Engagement, South Korea, US
North Macedonia
North Macedonia, landlocked country of the south-central Balkans. It is bordered to the north by Kosovo and Serbia,......
Northcliffe, Alfred Charles William Harmsworth, Viscount
Alfred Charles William Harmsworth, Viscount Northcliffe was one of the most successful newspaper publishers in......
Northern Alliance
Northern Alliance, loose coalition of militias in Afghanistan who opposed the first Taliban regime from 1996 until......
Norway
Norway, country of northern Europe that occupies the western half of the Scandinavian peninsula. Nearly half of......
- Introduction
- Arctic, Fjords, Coastal
- Sami, Norwegian, English
- Fishing, Forestry, Agriculture
- Hydroelectricity, Fjords, Glaciers
- Labour, Taxation, Economy
- Constitution, Parliament, Welfare
- Healthcare, Welfare, Quality
- Fjords, Culture, Nature
- Museums, Art, Culture
- Vikings, Fjords, Sami
- Christianization, Vikings, Fjords
- Fjords, Vikings, Arctic
- Viking, Reformation, Union
- Treaty of Kiel, Union, Scandinavia
- Economy, Resources, Industries
- Union Conflict, 1859-1905
- Neutrality, WWI, Interwar
- WWII Occupation, Resistance, Liberation
- Arctic, NATO, Oil
Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty
Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty, treaty signed in Moscow on August 5, 1963, by the United States, the Soviet Union, and......
Nuremberg Code
Nuremberg Code, a 10-point statement designed to define the limits of permissible medical experimentation on human......
Nuremberg trials
Nuremberg trials, series of trials held in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1945–46, in which former Nazi leaders were indicted......
Nuri al-Said
Nuri al-Said was an Iraqi army officer, statesman, and political leader who maintained close ties with Great Britain......
Nürnberg Laws
Nürnberg Laws, two race-based measures depriving Jews of rights, designed by Adolf Hitler and approved by the Nazi......
Obama, Barack
Barack Obama is the 44th president of the United States (2009–17) and the first African American to hold the office.......
- Introduction
- 44th President, Political Career, Legacy
- Health Care Reform
- Iraq, Afghanistan, Politics
- Budget Battles, Presidency, Legacy
- 44th President, US Politics, Legacy
- Scandals, Challenges, Politics
- Political Leadership, Presidency, Legacy
- Executive Action, Midterm Election, 2014
- 44th President, Legislation, Diplomacy
- Post-Presidency, Activism, Legacy
occupation of Japan
occupation of Japan, (1945–52) military occupation of Japan by the Allied Powers after its defeat in World War......
Ochs, Phil
Phil Ochs was an American folksinger and songwriter best remembered for the protest songs he wrote in the 1960s......
October Revolution
October Revolution, (Oct. 24–25 [Nov. 6–7, New Style], 1917), the second and last major phase of the Russian Revolution......
Office of Strategic Services
Office of Strategic Services (OSS), agency of the U.S. federal government (1942–45) formed for the purpose of obtaining......
Ohlin, Bertil
Bertil Ohlin was a Swedish economist and political leader who is known as the founder of the modern theory of the......
Okinawa, Battle of
Battle of Okinawa, (April 1–June 21, 1945), World War II battle fought between U.S. and Japanese forces on Okinawa,......
Omaha Beach
Omaha Beach, second beach from the west among the five landing areas of the Normandy Invasion of World War II.......
Oman
Oman, Gulf Arab country at the confluence of the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. It is ruled by the Āl Bū Saʿīd dynasty,......
Omar Khadr case
Omar Khadr case, the imprisonment, trial, and eventual release of Omar Khadr, a Toronto-born Canadian, captured......
Omar, Mohammad
Mohammad Omar was an Afghan militant and leader of the Taliban (Pashto: Ṭālebān [“Students”]) who was the emir......
Operation Bagration
Operation Bagration, large-scale Soviet offensive against Nazi Germany that occurred from June 23 to August 19,......
Operation Fortitude
Operation Fortitude, during World War II, an Allied deception operation that was intended to make Nazi Germany’s......
Operation Market Garden
Operation Market Garden, Allied pursuit of Nazi Germany’s forces across France, and a failed strategic airborne......
Operation Mincemeat
Operation Mincemeat, covert operation by British intelligence in 1943, designed to mislead Nazi Germany about the......
Operation Torch
Operation Torch, major Allied amphibious operation in French North Africa during World War II. It began on November......
Ordnungspolizei
Ordnungspolizei, uniformed police agencies of the Third Reich. They became an integral part of the SS and police......
Ordzhonikidze, Grigory Konstantinovich
Grigory Konstantinovich Ordzhonikidze was a communist leader who played a major role in bringing Georgia under......
Orlando, Vittorio
Vittorio Orlando was an Italian statesman and prime minister during the concluding years of World War I and head......
Orwell, George
George Orwell was an English novelist, essayist, and critic famous for his profoundly influential novels Animal......
Otter, William D.
William D. Otter was a Canadian army officer. He joined the army and helped suppress the Riel (North West) Rebellion......
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire, empire created by Turkish tribes in Anatolia (Asia Minor) that grew to be one of the most powerful......
- Introduction
- Osman, Orhan, Expansion
- Restoration, 1402-81, Expansion
- Mehmed II, Expansion, Legacy
- Institutions, Expansion, Reforms
- Military, Janissaries, Sipahis
- Expansion, Suleiman, Decline
- Selim I, Expansion, Reforms
- Suleyman I, Expansion, Legacy
- Classical Society, Administration, Reforms
- Decline, Reforms, Fall
- Expansion, Diplomacy, Trade
- Resistance, Reforms, Decline
- Expansion, Reforms, Collapse
- Tanzimat Reforms, Modernization, Equality
- 1875 Crisis, Reforms, Decline
- Abdulhamid II, Reforms, Autocracy
- Dissolution, Fall, Legacy
- Sultans, Dynasties, Legacy
Outer Space Treaty
Outer Space Treaty, (1967), international treaty binding the parties to use outer space only for peaceful purposes.......
Ovington, Mary White
Mary White Ovington was an American civil rights activist, one of the white reformers who joined African Americans......
O’Brien, Tim
Tim O’Brien is an American novelist noted for his writings about American soldiers in the Vietnam War. His best-known......
O’Hare, Edward
Edward O’Hare was an American aviator and war hero who became the U.S. Navy’s first flying ace during World War......
P-38
P-38, fighter and fighter-bomber employed by the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II. A large and powerful......
P-47
P-47, fighter and fighter-bomber used by the Allied air forces during World War II. A single-seat low-wing fighter......
P-51
P-51, a single-seat, single-engine fighter aircraft originally designed and produced by North American Aviation......
Paasikivi, Juho Kusti
Juho Kusti Paasikivi was a Finnish statesman and diplomat who, as prime minister (1918, 1944–46) and then president......
Pacific Ocean
Pacific Ocean, body of salt water extending from the 60° S parallel in the south to the Arctic in the north and......
Pacific War
Pacific War, major theatre of World War II that covered a large portion of the Pacific Ocean, East Asia, and Southeast......
- Introduction
- Pearl Harbor, Midway, Japan
- Expansion, Japanese, Perimeter
- Guadalcanal, Papua
- Aleutians, Rabaul, Gilberts
- Allied Offensive, 1944, Japan
- Central Pacific, Islands, Battles
- Philippines, Invasion, WWII
- Atomic Bomb, Invasion, Surrender
- Battle, Marines, Japan
- Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Atomic Bombs
- Japanese Surrender, WWII, Allies
- Peacemaking, Treaty, Japan
Pact of Steel
Pact of Steel, Alliance between Germany and Italy. Signed by Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini on May 22, 1939,......
Page, Walter Hines
Walter Hines Page was a journalist, book publisher, author, and diplomat who, as U.S. ambassador to Great Britain......
Painlevé, Paul
Paul Painlevé was a French politician, mathematician, and patron of aviation who was prime minister at a crucial......
Paleckis, Justas
Justas Paleckis was a Lithuanian politician who served as prime minister and president of Lithuania with the support......
Palestine
Palestine, region of Southwest Asia along the eastern Mediterranean, generally regarded as consisting of the southern......
- Introduction
- Ancient, Conflict, Borders
- Iron Age, Canaanites, Philistines
- Alexander, Roman, Jewish
- Hasmonean, Priest, Princes
- Roman Rule, Jewish Revolts, Crusades
- Crusades, Holy Land, Conflict
- British Mandate, Zionism, Conflict
- The Arab Revolt
- Occupation, Refugees, Conflict
- Nationalism, Intifada, Occupation
- International Recognition, Conflict, Resolution
- Intifadah, Occupation, Conflict
- Split Admin, West Bank, Gaza Strip
Palestine Liberation Organization
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), umbrella political organization claiming to represent the world’s Palestinians—those......
Paley, Grace
Grace Paley was an American short-story writer and poet known for her realistic seriocomic portrayals of working-class......
Palmer Raids
Palmer Raids, raids conducted by the U.S. Department of Justice in 1919 and 1920 in an attempt to arrest foreign......
Pan-Arabism
Pan-Arabism, nationalist notion of cultural and political unity among Arab countries. Its origins lie in the late......
Panama
Panama, country of Central America located on the Isthmus of Panama, the narrow bridge of land that connects North......
- Introduction
- Tropical, Rainforest, Maritime
- Urbanization, Migration, Trade
- Finance, Banking, Economy
- Democracy, Constitution, Politics
- Culture, Traditions, Festivals
- Sports, Recreation, Culture
- Transcontinental Railroad, Canal Projects
- WWII, Intrigues, Canal
- Invasion, US, 1989
- US Relations, Canal, Trade
panic
panic, in economics, acute financial disturbance, such as widespread bank failures, feverish stock speculation......
panzer
panzer, series of battle tanks fielded by the German army in the 1930s and ’40s. The six tanks in the series constituted......
Panzerfaust
Panzerfaust, shoulder-type German antitank weapon that was widely used in World War II. The first model, the Panzerfaust......
Panzerschreck
Panzerschreck, shoulder-type rocket launcher used as an antitank weapon by Germany in World War II. The Panzerschreck......
Papagos, Alexandros
Alexandros Papagos was a soldier and statesman who late in life organized a political party and became premier......
Paraguay
Paraguay, landlocked country in south-central South America. Paraguay’s recent history has been characterized by......
- Introduction
- Rivers, Forests, Plains
- Wildlife, Ecosystems, Forests
- Agriculture, Industry, Trade
- Hydroelectricity, Agriculture, Timber
- Trade, Agriculture, Manufacturing
- Politics, Constitution, Society
- Security, Military, Politics
- Culture, Traditions, Cuisine
- Colonial History, Jesuit Missions, Independence
- War, Triple Alliance, Conflict
- Dictatorship, Stroessner, Repression
- Politics, Economy, Society
paramilitary
paramilitary, group or organization that operates outside a country’s formal military structure. Paramilitaries......
Paris Peace Conference
Paris Peace Conference, (1919–20), the meeting that inaugurated the international settlement after World War I.......
Paris Peace Treaties
Paris Peace Treaties, (1947) series of treaties between the Allied powers and five defeated European countries......
Paris, Treaties of
Treaties of Paris, (1919–20), collectively the peace settlements concluding World War I and signed at sites around......
Parks, Rosa
Rosa Parks was an American civil rights activist whose refusal to relinquish her seat on a public bus precipitated......
Partisan
Partisan, member of a guerrilla force led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia during World War II against the......
pass law
pass law, law that required nonwhites in South Africa to carry documents authorizing their presence in restricted......
Passchendaele, Battle of
Battle of Passchendaele, (July 31–November 6, 1917), World War I battle that served as a vivid symbol of the mud,......
Patton, George
George Patton was a U.S. Army officer who was an outstanding practitioner of mobile tank warfare in the European......
Paulus, Friedrich
Friedrich Paulus was a German field marshal whose advance on Stalingrad (now Volgograd, Russia) in the summer and......
Pavelić, Ante
Ante Pavelić was a Croatian fascist leader and revolutionist who headed a Croatian state subservient to Germany......
Pašić, Nikola
Nikola Pašić was the prime minister of Serbia (1891–92, 1904–05, 1906–08, 1909–11, 1912–18) and prime minister......
Pearl Harbor and the “Back Door to War” Theory
Was there a “back door” to World War II, as some revisionist historians have asserted? According to this view,......
Pearl Harbor attack
Pearl Harbor attack, (December 7, 1941), surprise aerial attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor on Oahu......
Pearl Harbor in Context
When U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt declared that December 7, 1941, would be “a date which will live in infamy,”......
Peng Dehuai
Peng Dehuai was a military leader, one of the greatest in Chinese communist history, and minister of national defense......
Penkovsky, Oleg Vladimirovich
Oleg Vladimirovich Penkovsky was a senior Soviet military intelligence officer who was convicted of spying for......
Pentagon Papers
Pentagon Papers, papers that contain a history of the U.S. role in Indochina from World War II until May 1968 and......
Pershing, John J.
John J. Pershing was a U.S. Army general who commanded the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) in Europe during......
Persian Gulf
Persian Gulf, shallow marginal sea of the Indian Ocean that lies between the Arabian Peninsula and southwestern......
Persian Gulf War
Persian Gulf War, (1990–91), international conflict that was triggered by Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait on August 2,......
Persian Gulf War Timeline
After Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, an international coalition led by the United States fought the Persian......