Pacific War

Pacific War, major theatre of World War II that covered a large portion of the Pacific Ocean, East Asia, and Southeast Asia, with significant engagements occurring as far south as northern Australia and as far north as the Aleutian Islands.

Japan’s strategy in the Pacific and Southeast Asia

The Japanese war plan, aimed at the American, British, and Dutch possessions in the Pacific and in Southeast Asia, was of a rather makeshift character. The first draft, submitted by the chiefs of the Army and Navy General Staff, was accepted by Imperial General Headquarters early in September 1941. The lateness of the draft was due largely to the long indecision about going to war with such powerful countries, but partly to the complicated system of command. The Army and Navy each had its own Supreme Command, and both of them, under the constitution of 1889, had become virtually independent of the civil government. Cooperation in planning and in execution took place only at top levels. Even when Imperial General Headquarters was established under the nominal command of Emperor Hirohito (the constitutional supreme commander), the separate command system was rigidly followed.

Since 1907, when Japanese military planners first defined hypothetical enemies, Russia, the United States, and France fell into this category. From the geostrategic standpoint, the Army would have the major role in a war against Russia, the Navy in one against the United States. Except for a few occasional revisions, the gist of this war plan remained nearly unchanged until 1936, when France was removed from the list of hypothetical enemies and China and Great Britain were included. Until 1941, however, the basic assumption was that Japan would be fighting only a single enemy, not two or three enemies simultaneously. In the event of war with the United States, the plan called for the Japanese Navy to destroy the enemy’s Far Eastern fleet at the outset of hostilities, to occupy Luzon and Guam in cooperation with the Army, and then to intercept and destroy the main enemy fleet when it sailed to Far Eastern waters. The assumption here was that the main U.S. fleet would have to come to the Western Pacific sooner or later to challenge the Japanese aggression, in which case it would be intercepted on its way by Japanese submarines and land-based air forces and then destroyed once and for all by Japan’s main fleet in a concentrated attack (as the Russian main fleet had been destroyed in the Battle of Tsushima in 1905).

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As late as 1939 the Japanese Navy was still a firm believer in gun power. It was assumed that decisive battles would be fought mainly by the big guns of the battleships, supplemented by light cruiser and destroyer attacks and by air attacks from carriers. The Navy had been armed and trained accordingly. Japanese naval policy had also long considered a strength equivalent to 70 percent of the total strength of the U.S. Navy as a prerequisite for victory over the United States—on the assumption that 30 percent of the main U.S. fleet would be destroyed before reaching Far Eastern waters. It was for this strategic reason that the Japanese Navy had made strenuous efforts to build up its auxiliary strength while its battleships were limited to 60 percent of the U.S. strength by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 and that Japan in 1934 gave notice of withdrawal from that treaty as from 1936. As early as 1934, two monster battleships, to be equipped with 18-inch (46-cm) guns, had already been planned despite the limitations of the treaty, though actual construction began only afterward. In 1940, simultaneous efforts were made to strengthen air and submarine forces.

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Meanwhile the Army had been deeply engaged in the protracted war in China, in which the main body of the Navy’s land-based air force and a small portion of its surface force had also taken part. The land-based air force’s operations in China not only gave it valuable experience but also prompted a rapid increase of its strength: the Zero fighter made its debut there, as did Japan’s twin-engined bomber. As 1940 drew to its close, however, the war in China had turned into a stalemate, and Japan had already committed itself to the Axis and antagonized the West. It was at this stage that the Army and the Navy began to plan war against the United States, Great Britain, and the Netherlands.

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The Japanese Navy began gradually mobilizing its forces. The 11th Air Fleet, the mainstay of the Navy’s land-based air force, was pulled out of mainland China to prepare for the ocean operations. On April 10, 1941, the 1st Air Fleet was formed with four regular carriers as its nucleus. Adm. Yamamoto Isoroku, commander in chief of the Combined Fleet from 1939, ordered his staff to study the feasibility of a surprise attack by carrier-borne air forces on the U.S. fleet in Pearl Harbor at the outset of a war—an idea that he had long had in mind. Such a crushing blow would, he thought, eliminate the threat of a flank attack by the main U.S. force against a planned Japanese movement southward. His strategy, in complete opposition to the Japanese Navy’s long-established policy, was destined to bring him into conflict with the Naval Supreme Command.

The Japanese advance, in July 1941, into the southern part of French Indochina provoked the United States to freeze Japanese overseas assets and then to impose a total embargo on oil and oil products to Japan. Negotiations offered little prospect for an early settlement, and on September 6 the Japanese government and the High Command decided that war preparations should be completed by late October. While both the U.S. and the British positions were to be attacked, the Dutch East Indies were also a primary objective, since their oilfields were essential if Japan was to wage war against the Western Powers. When the U.S. embargo was imposed, Japan’s oil stocks amounted to 53 million barrels (8,400,000 kilolitres), barely enough to fulfill its needs for two years.

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In the meantime Yamamoto had been pressing his Pearl Harbor plan on the Naval General Staff, which regarded it as much too risky. It was only on Yamamoto’s strong insistence that the Naval High Command finally agreed, late in September, to incorporate it in the “overall operational” plan. It was also decided to postpone the start of hostilities, mainly because preparations were proceeding slowly. Japan’s war plan thus stood on two pillars: a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor at the outset of the war; and the so-called Southern Operation, aimed at capturing the Philippines, Malaya, and the Dutch East Indies. The retention of the proposed conquests also implied a defensive perimeter: Japan might have to occupy Wake Island, Guam, and the Gilberts in the east (to strengthen the already existing Japanese arc of islands from the Kurils to the Marshalls), and Burma in the west.

For Pearl Harbor, 6 regular carriers (all that the Japanese Navy then had), 2 battleships, 3 cruisers, and 11 destroyers were allocated. Since surprise was of the essence, a Sunday, December 7, was chosen as the date for the attack. For the Southern Operation, two drives—one from Formosa through the Philippines, the other from French Indochina and Hainan Island through Malaya—were to converge on the Dutch East Indies. For this plan, as well as an operation against Hong Kong, the Army allocated 11 divisions (about 370,000 men), 7 tank regiments (340 tanks), and 2 air divisions (795 combat planes). These air divisions represented approximately 50 percent of the Army’s total air strength, but the ground force amounted only to 20 percent of the Army’s total. The main force of the Japanese Army was still deployed on the Chinese mainland and in Manchuria (for fear of Soviet intentions). The Navy’s mission in the Southern Operation was to destroy enemy air forces with its long-range Zero fighters and twin-engined bombers before the Japanese landings, to provide an umbrella for the landing forces, and to escort the surface vessels. Landing operations of this type were to be repeated until Java was captured. The target date was set at 150 days after the start of the war.

The unprecedented scale and scope of the whole enterprise required the Japanese Navy to mobilize all available units: 10 battleships, 6 regular carriers, 4 auxiliary carriers, 18 heavy cruisers, 20 light cruisers, 112 destroyers, 65 submarines, and 2,274 combat planes. The prospect was scarcely bright. To a question by Konoe, Yamamoto answered, “In the first six to twelve months of a war with the United States and Great Britain I will run wild and win victory upon victory. But then, if the war continues after that, I have no expectation of success.”

On November 5, 1941, Japan made the decision to go to war early in December if the negotiations with the U.S. did not reach a satisfactory conclusion by December 1. On November 21 an order to deploy the necessary forces was issued, and on December 1 the final decision was made. The target time was dawn, December 7, in Hawaii (early morning, December 8, in parts of the Western Pacific on the other side of the International Date Line).