Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim was a historian and theologian who founded Febronianism, the German form of Gallicanism, which advocated the restriction of papal power. Hontheim’s extensive European travels brought him to Rome, where he was ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 1728. He became professor

February, second month of the Gregorian calendar. It was named after Februalia, the Roman festival of purification. Originally, February was the last month of the Roman

In early 2011, amid a wave of popular protest in countries throughout the Middle East and North Africa, largely peaceful demonstrations against entrenched regimes brought quick transfers of power in Egypt and Tunisia. In Libya, however, an uprising against the four-decade rule of Muammar al-Qaddafi

Empire of Japan: Manchukuo and the Second Sino-Japanese War: The February 1936 military revolt in Tokyo marked the high point of the extremists and the consolidation of power by the Control faction within the army. With the death of Korekiyo, whose monetary policies had spared Japan the worst effects of the Depression, opposition to additional…

China: Seizure of power: The movement, dubbed the “February adverse current,” was quickly defeated and a new radical upsurge began. Indeed, by the summer of 1967, large armed clashes occurred throughout urban China, and even Chinese embassies abroad experienced takeovers by their own Red Guards. The Red Guards splintered into zealous factions, each…

February Manifesto, (Feb. 15, 1899) a Russian imperial proclamation that abrogated Finland’s autonomy within the Russian Empire. After Finland was ceded by Sweden to Russia in 1809, it gained the status of a grand duchy, and its constitution was respected; beginning in 1890, however,

Austria: Constitutional experimentation, 1860–67: …four months later issued the February Patent (1861), officially a revision of the Diploma. This document provided for a bicameral system: an empirewide house of representatives composed of delegates from the diets and a house of lords consisting partly of hereditary members and partly of men of special distinction appointed…

February Revolution, (March 8–12 [Feb. 24–28, old style], 1917), the first stage of the Russian Revolution of 1917, in which the monarchy was overthrown and replaced by the Provisional Government. This government, intended as an interim stage in the creation of a permanent democratic-parliamentary

Lucien Paul Victor Febvre was a French historian of the early modern period and organizer of major national and international intellectual projects. In his books and editorial efforts, Febvre embraced a “global” history that rejected all forms of pedantry and determinism. Febvre, the son of a

telecommunication: Channel encoding: One method is called forward error control (FEC). In this method information bits are protected against errors by the transmitting of extra redundant bits, so that if errors occur during transmission the redundant bits can be used by the decoder to determine where the errors have occurred and how…

Federal Election Commission (FEC), independent agency of the federal government of the United States responsible for administering and enforcing the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) of 1971, which regulates the raising and spending of money in campaigns for federal offices, and the Revenue Act

Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA), legislation adopted in the United States in 1971 to regulate the raising and spending of money in U.S. federal elections. It imposed restrictions on the amounts of monetary or other contributions that could lawfully be made to federal candidates and parties,

colorectal cancer: Diagnosis: A fecal immunochemical test (FIT) may also be used to detect the presence of blood in the stool. FIT tests can be completed at home and then mailed to a laboratory for testing. Results are sent to the patient’s physician. If colorectal cancer is suspected, the…

defecation: Incontinence—the loss of control over the evacuative process—can develop with age; it may also result from surgical, obstetric, spinal, or other bodily injuries or with neurological impairment resulting from diabetes, stroke, or multiple sclerosis. Defecation may also be influenced by pain, fear, temperature elevation, and…

fecal microbiota transplant (FMT), procedure in which processed stool from a healthy donor is transferred into the intestinal tract of another person. It attempts to restore balance to a community of intestinal microorganisms that has been disrupted by infection, antibiotic use, or disease. FMT is

fecal occult blood test, method used to analyze feces for the purpose of diagnosing a disease or disorder in humans or animals. In humans the fecal occult blood test is a low-cost method for detecting gastrointestinal bleeding, which may be the first sign of carcinoma of the colon or rectum.

laxative: Fecal softeners are not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and act to increase the bulk of the feces. Liquid paraffin (mineral oil) can be used either as the oil itself or as a white emulsion. Other fecal softeners have a detergent action that increases the…

polio: Course of disease: …most often by the so-called fecal-oral route—that is, from fecal matter taken into the mouth through contaminated food or fingers. It can also enter by ingestion of droplets expelled from the throat of an infected person. New victims may become ill about 7 to 14 days after ingesting the virus.…

appendix: …in the opening is a fecalith, a hardened piece of fecal matter. Swelling of the lining of the appendiceal walls themselves can also block the opening. When the appendix is prevented from emptying itself, a series of events occurs. Fluids and its own mucous secretions collect in the appendix, leading…

Fécamp, seaside resort and fishing port of northern France, Seine-Maritime département, Normandy région, northeast of Le Havre. It lies at the opening of the valley of the Valmont River, between high cliffs. In the 11th century Fécamp became famous for its Benedictine abbey, which, before the

feces, solid bodily waste discharged from the large intestine through the anus during defecation. Feces are normally removed from the body one or two times a day. About 100 to 250 grams (3 to 8 ounces) of feces are excreted by a human adult daily. Normally, feces are made up of 75 percent water and

Gustav Fechner was a German physicist and philosopher who was a key figure in the founding of psychophysics, the science concerned with quantitative relations between sensations and the stimuli producing them. Although he was educated in biological science, Fechner turned to mathematics and

Gustav Fechner was a German physicist and philosopher who was a key figure in the founding of psychophysics, the science concerned with quantitative relations between sensations and the stimuli producing them. Although he was educated in biological science, Fechner turned to mathematics and

theatre: British theatre and stage design: …first manager of significance was Charles Fechter, who revived interest in the box set. He also discontinued entrances from the wings, heretofore a standard practice of actors even when the wings represented solid walls. Fechter also used a stage that sank by hydraulic mechanism, later perfected by the Germans, which…

John de Feckenham was an English priest and the last abbot of Westminster. Feckenham was a monk at Evesham until that monastery was dissolved in 1540. He then returned for a time to Oxford, where he had formerly been educated, becoming in 1543 chaplain to Bishop Edmund Bonner of London. He shared

Ahmed Haşim: In 1909 he joined the Fecr-i âti (“Dawn of the Future”) literary circle but gradually drew apart from this group and developed his own style. Haşim, following the French masters, strove to develop the Turkish Symbolist movement. In a 1924 article on Turkish literature for the French publication Mercure de…

myth: Hunting and agricultural deities: …marriage in order to gain fecundity for humans (this happens in ancient Mesopotamian religions, for instance).

monetary policy: The Federal Reserve System (commonly called the Fed) in the United States and the Bank of England of Great Britain are two of the largest such “banks” in the world. Although there are some differences between them, the fundamentals of their operations are almost identical and…

Billie Jean King Cup, trophy representing the women’s amateur team-tennis championship of the world, inaugurated in 1963 by the International Lawn Tennis Federation in observance of its 50th anniversary. The first competition, an elimination tournament involving teams of three players from 16

Mohammedia, port city, northwestern Morocco. It lies along the Atlantic Ocean 15 miles (24 km) northeast of Casablanca. The harbour, at what is now Mohammedia, was frequented in the 14th and 15th centuries by merchant ships from Europe seeking cereals and dried fruits. In the 18th and 19th

fedayee, a term used in Islamic cultures to describe a devotee of a religious or national group willing to engage in self-immolation to attain a group goal. The term first appeared in the 11th–13th centuries in reference to the members of the Nizārī Ismāʿīlī sect of Assassins who would risk their

fedayee: …leader Ṣaddām Ḥussein; members of Fedayeen Ṣaddām (Fidāʾī Ṣaddām) engaged in guerrilla operations against U.S. and British forces during the Anglo-American invasion of Iraq in 2003.

Fedchenko Glacier, extensive valley glacier, situated in the Central Asian Pamirs range, central Tajikistan. The world’s largest glacier found outside the polar regions, it is about 45 miles (70 km) long and covers up to some 350 square miles (900 square km). It flows north from the ice field of

Fedchenko Glacier, extensive valley glacier, situated in the Central Asian Pamirs range, central Tajikistan. The world’s largest glacier found outside the polar regions, it is about 45 miles (70 km) long and covers up to some 350 square miles (900 square km). It flows north from the ice field of

Fedchenko Glacier: …for the 19th-century Russian explorer A.P. Fedchenko. Its middle and upper reaches were first explored in 1928 as part of a major Soviet expedition to the Pamirs region. Over the years the glacier has been the site of several meteorological stations.

Andrea del Sarto: …1517 or 1518 Sarto married Lucrezia del Fede, a widow whom he had, according to her testimony, used as a model for several years; she brought him property and a useful dowry. In 1518 he was summoned by the king of France, Francis I, to Fontainebleau, where he was preceded…

Compagnia dei Fedeli, one of several Italian companies performing commedia dell’arte (improvised popular comedy) at the beginning of the 17th century. The name means “company of the faithful.” The Fedeli was a successor to the pioneering Gelosi company and incorporated some of the Gelosi’s actors

Gottfried Feder was a German political activist who was the principal economic theoretician of the initial phase of German Nazism. Feder, a civil engineer, gained notoriety in 1919 for his vaguely socialistic “Manifest zur Brechung der Zinsknechtschaft” (“Manifesto on Breaking the Shackles of

Spain: The Second Republic: …of an anarchist group, the Iberian Anarchist Federation (Federación Anarquista Ibérica; FAI). Violent strikes were frequent.

administrative law: The German system: …the federation there is the Federal Administrative Court, which acts mainly as a court of appeals from the superior administrative courts in the Länder and even from the lower administrative courts in certain circumstances. The Federal Administrative Court serves also as a court of first and last instance in disputes…

Federal Reserve System: The Federal Advisory Council, whose role is purely advisory, consists of one representative from each of the 12 Federal Reserve districts.

road: From local to national funding: …view was recognized by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921, which required each state to designate a system of state highways not to exceed 7 percent of the total highway mileage in each state. Federal-aid funding was limited to this system, which was not to exceed three-sevenths of total…

Route 66: Rise and demise of the route: Eisenhower signed the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, a few segments of Route 66 had already been superseded by newer, wider, and safer roads. The act authorized federal funding for an Interstate Highway System of such roads, and, despite an appeal by the state of Missouri on behalf…

road: From local to national funding: …Office Appropriation Act, and the Federal Aid Road Act of 1916 established federal aid for highways as a national policy. The Bureau of Public Roads, established in the Department of Agriculture in 1893 to make “inquiries with regard to road management,” was given responsibility for the program, and an apportionment…

Germany: Security of Germany: …the Federal Armed Forces (Bundeswehr). The German military forces are divided into an army, navy, and air force. From its inception the Federal Armed Forces was envisioned as a citizens’ defense force, decisively under civilian control through the Bundestag, and its officers and soldiers trained to be mindful of…

WPA Federal Art Project, first major attempt at government patronage of the visual arts in the United States and the most extensive and influential of the visual arts projects conceived during the Depression of the 1930s by the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. It is often confused

Russia: Constitutional framework: Under the new constitution the Federal Assembly became the country’s legislature. It consists of the Federation Council (an upper house comprising appointed representatives from each of Russia’s administrative divisions) and the State Duma (a 450-member popularly elected lower house). The president’s nominee for chairman of the government is subject to…

Bundestag, one of the two legislative chambers of the Federal Republic of Germany. The Bundestag is the lower house, representing the nation as a whole and elected by universal suffrage under a system of mixed direct and proportional representation. Members serve four-year terms. The Bundestag in

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), agency of the U.S. federal government that is responsible for ensuring the safety and efficiency of civil aviation in the United States and in surrounding international waters. Created as the independent Federal Aviation Agency in 1958, it was incorporated

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), principal investigative agency of the federal government of the United States. The bureau is responsible for conducting investigations in cases where federal laws may have been violated, unless another agency of the federal government has been specifically

Federal Capital Territory (FCT), administrative territory, central Nigeria, created in 1976. The territory is located north of the confluence of the Niger and Benue rivers. It is bordered by the states of Niger to the west and northwest, Kaduna to the northeast, Nassarawa to the east and south, and

United States Court of Appeals: The Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, created by an act of Congress in 1982, hears appeals from U.S. district and territorial courts primarily in patent and trademark cases, though it also hears appeals in cases in which the United States or its agencies is…

United States presidential election of 1960: The general election campaign: A provision of the Federal Communications Act had been suspended by Congress earlier in the year to permit the networks to broadcast the debates without having to provide equal time for candidates of minor parties. Although the debates were sometimes compared to the historic debates between Abraham Lincoln and…

Federal Communications Commission (FCC), independent American governmental organization responsible for regulating “interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable.” The mission of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is to make available,

Federal Communications Commission v. Pacifica Foundation (1978) is a legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court upheld (5–4) the authority of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to regulate broadcast content that it considers indecent. The case was triggered by the airing of a humorous

Federal Constitutional Court, in Germany, special court for the review of judicial and administrative decisions and legislation to determine whether they are in accord with the Basic Law (constitution) of the country. Although all German courts are empowered to review the constitutionality of

Constitutional Convention, (1787), in U.S. history, convention that drew up the Constitution of the United States. Stimulated by severe economic troubles, which produced radical political movements such as Shays’s Rebellion, and urged on by a demand for a stronger central government, the convention

Bundesrat, (German: “Federal Council”), one of the two legislative chambers of the Federal Republic of Germany. It is the Upper House and acts mainly in an advisory capacity, since political power resides in the popularly elected Bundestag, but its consent is required for a large number of laws and

Christian Democratic People’s Party: …the seven seats on the Federal Council, the executive branch of the Swiss government. Since the 1960s the party’s level of support has fluctuated; from 1975 to 1983 it was the largest party, but from the mid-1980s through the 1990s it suffered a drop in support to parties on its…

free church: …this group merged with the Federal Council of the Evangelical Churches to form the Free Church Federal Council (commonly known as the Free Churches Group).

Federal Security Service (FSB), Russian internal security and counterintelligence service created in 1994 as one of the successor agencies of the Soviet-era KGB. It is responsible for counterintelligence, antiterrorism, and surveillance of the military. The FSB occupies the former headquarters of

Oliver Ellsworth: Life: …the committee to establish the federal court system and the chief author of the Federal Judiciary Act of 1789, the principal basis ever since of the U.S. court structure.

Germany: Security of Germany: …investigates customs violations; and the Federal Criminal Investigation Office (Bundeskriminalamt; BKA), headquartered in Wiesbaden, which provides forensic and research assistance to federal and state agencies investigating crime, as well as coordinating efforts among various state, national, and international police forces. The BfV is noteworthy for tracking the activities of extremist…

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), a U.S. government agency created under the Banking Act of 1933 (also known as the Glass-Steagall Act). The primary role of the FDIC is to insure and protect bank depositors’ funds against loss in the event of a bank failure. The FDIC also plays a

Bundestag, one of the two legislative chambers of the Federal Republic of Germany. The Bundestag is the lower house, representing the nation as a whole and elected by universal suffrage under a system of mixed direct and proportional representation. Members serve four-year terms. The Bundestag in

Federal District, administrative district, central Mexico, the seat of the national government. It is officially equivalent with Mexico City, although the Mexico City metropolitan area extends beyond the district’s boundaries. It is bounded by the states of México to the west, north, and east and

Russia: Constitutional framework: Vladimir Putin created seven federal districts above the regional level to increase the central government’s power over the regions (see discussion below). His successor, Dmitry Medvedev, continued this policy: as a part of Moscow’s ongoing efforts to quell separatism and Islamic militancy in the Caucasus, he created an eighth…

Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA), legislation adopted in the United States in 1971 to regulate the raising and spending of money in U.S. federal elections. It imposed restrictions on the amounts of monetary or other contributions that could lawfully be made to federal candidates and parties,

Federal Election Commission (FEC), independent agency of the federal government of the United States responsible for administering and enforcing the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) of 1971, which regulates the raising and spending of money in campaigns for federal offices, and the Revenue Act

Mexico: Beyond single-party rule: …by the PRI), however, the Federal Electoral Institute ordered a recount of more than half of the country’s polling places. A recount of the vote in the federal legislative elections was also mandated in roughly two-thirds of the polling places. The recount of the presidential contest confirmed Peña Nieto’s victory.…

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), independent U.S. government organization dedicated to disaster relief. Part of the Department of Homeland Security since 2003, FEMA employs more than 20,000 people across 10 regional offices and is headquartered in Washington, D.C. More than $20 billion

Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Hundred Days: The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) granted funds to state relief agencies, and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) employed hundreds of thousands of young men in reforestation and flood-control work. The Home Owners’ Refinancing Act provided mortgage relief for millions of unemployed Americans in danger of…

United States: The Red Scare: …in 1947, of an elaborate Federal Employee Loyalty Program, which resulted in hundreds of federal workers being fired and in several thousand more being forced to resign.

Environmental Protection Agency: Establishment and early actions: …industries and motor vehicles; the Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act (1972); and the Clean Water Act (1972), regulating municipal and industrial wastewater discharges and offering grants for building sewage-treatment facilities. By the mid-1990s the EPA was enforcing 12 major statutes, including laws designed to control uranium mill tailings; ocean dumping;…

FedEx Corp. is a global leader in transportation, e-commerce, and logistics; the company started by introducing express shipping services to the U.S. in the 1970s. Founded in 1971 as Federal Express Corp. in Little Rock, Arkansas, FedEx is best known as a shipping company. In addition to delivering

Pure Food and Drug Act, in U.S. history, legislation passed in 1906 to ensure the sanitary preparation of consumable goods. The Pure Food and Drug Act required accurate ingredient labeling and prohibited the sale of adulterated and misbranded food and drugs in interstate commerce. As the first

e-cigarette: …and drug-delivery devices under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA, FDCA, or FD&C), the organization initiated action against the import of e-cigarettes. In January 2010, following a lawsuit by an e-cigarette distributor, the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia ruled that e-cigarettes did not meet the…

federal funds rate, interest rate used for overnight interbank lending in the United States. It is also the interest rate that is adjusted by the central bank of the United States—the Federal Reserve (“the Fed”)—to conduct monetary policy. The amount of cash that a bank holds is called its

United States: The Great Depression: The Federal Home Loan Bank Act sought to prop up threatened building and loan associations. But these measures failed to promote recovery or to arrest the rising tide of unemployment. Hoover, whose administrative abilities had masked severe political shortcomings, made things worse by offering negative leadership…

savings and loan association: Under a ruling of the Federal Home Loan Bank Board, which regulates federally chartered savings and loan associations, associations need not rely only on individual deposits for funds. They can borrow from other financial institutions and market mortgage-backed securities, money market certificates, and stock.

Freddie Mac (FHLMC), federally chartered private corporation created by the U.S. Congress in 1970 to provide continuous and affordable home financing. It is one of several government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs) established since the early 20th century to help reduce the cost of credit to various

Federal Housing Administration (FHA), agency within the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) that was established by the National Housing Act on June 27, 1934 to facilitate home financing, improve housing standards, and increase employment in the home-construction industry in the

Fannie Mae: In 2007 the Federal Housing Reform Act transferred these responsibilities to the new Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA).

On June 8, 2023, Donald J. Trump became the first former U.S. president to be indicted by a federal grand jury. The 37-count indictment, filed by the office of special counsel Jack Smith, relates to the alleged mishandling of classified documents that were found at Trump’s Mar-a-Lago estate in Palm

In August 2023 Donald Trump, the 45th president of the United States (2017–21) and the Republican nominee in the presidential election of 2024, was indicted on charges that he illegally sought to overturn the lawful election of Joe Biden in 2020. The four-count, 45-page indictment sought by special

insurance: Government regulation: …regulation is provided by the Federal Insurance Supervisory Authority (BAV), which exercises tight control of premiums, reserves, and investments of insurers. The BAV’s regulation of life insurance, for example, allows no more than 20 percent of investments in equities.

BND, foreign intelligence agency of the West German government. Created in April 1956, it absorbed the “Gehlen Organization,” a covert intelligence force which was created by Major General Reinhard Gehlen after World War II and which cooperated with U.S. intelligence agencies. Gehlen had headed the

Comoros, an independent state comprising three of the main Comoro Islands in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of East Africa. The fourth main island of the Comorian archipelago, Mayotte, is claimed by the country of Comoros but administered by France. The volcanic islands of the Comorian archipelago

Oliver Ellsworth: Life: …the chief author of the Federal Judiciary Act of 1789, the principal basis ever since of the U.S. court structure.

Lindbergh baby kidnapping: The murder investigation: Congress to pass the Federal Kidnapping Act (known as the Lindbergh Law) on June 22, 1932—the day that would have been Charles’s second birthday. The Lindbergh Law made kidnapping across state lines a federal crime and stipulated that such an offense could be punished by death.

natural resources law: States’ rights: …example of this is the Federal Land Policy and Management Act, pursuant to which the U.S. Department of Interior manages public lands for a mix of uses including mining, grazing, and various recreational activities. Other resource management laws are more directive, favoring a particular use (such as wilderness preservation or…

Kenesaw Mountain Landis: In 1915 the Federal League, a “third major league” operating outside the structure of organized professional baseball, brought suit against the American and National leagues. The case came before Landis, who neither granted nor denied the injunction that was requested but withheld his decision until the Federal League…

Jesse H. Jones: …appointment as director of the Federal Loan Agency. While continuing, effectively if not nominally, to superintend the former agency, he now exercised control over the Federal Housing Administration, the Export-Import Bank, and the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation. A special act of Congress permitted him to carry out his activities at…

Each year, millions of college students and their parents borrow money to cover costs. After all, it’s not just the price of tuition that’s gone up. Living expenses are also on the rise. Even with different types of federal student aid and scholarships, it’s not uncommon for students to have a

Great Depression: Federal arts programs: …the Federal Art Project, the Federal Music Project, the Federal Writers’ Project, and the Federal Theatre Project as part of the WPA; thousands of artists, architects, and educators found work in American museums, which flourished during the Great Depression.

United Arab Emirates: Constitutional framework: The unicameral legislature, the Federal National Council, is an advisory body made up of 40 members appointed by the individual emirates for two-year terms. A provisional constitution was ratified in 1971 and was made permanent in 1996 by the Supreme Council.

Fannie Mae (FNMA), federally chartered private corporation created as a federal agency by the U.S. Congress in 1938 to ensure adequate liquidity in the mortgage market regardless of economic conditions. It is one of several government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs) established since the early 20th

intelligence: Germany: The BfV (Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution), which is part of the Ministry of the Interior, is charged with protecting the country from antidemocratic forces, particularly neo-Nazism. The agency employs some 2,500 people at its headquarters in Cologne. In addition, each German state…

Eight months out of the year, the financial market tends to get eerily quiet for two days. Then boom, a big move hits—sometimes a rally, and sometimes a drop. That’s the market’s reaction to the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) interest rate decision (more specifically, where to set the target

Sonderbund: …despite the fact that the Federal Pact (constitution of 1815) had guaranteed the monasteries’ property. The seven Catholic cantons in 1843–44 agreed that they would dissociate themselves from any canton disloyal to the Federal Pact, and in 1844 the Jesuits, whom 19th-century liberals detested, were invited to take charge of…