Politics & Political Systems, GRE-INS
Monarchies, republics, democracies, dictatorships, and hybrids of every kind all offer ways of organizing power. Explore the systems and ideas through which societies govern themselves.
Politics & Political Systems Encyclopedia Articles By Title
Gregorian Reform
Gregorian Reform, eleventh-century religious reform movement associated with its most forceful advocate, Pope Gregory......
GRU
GRU, Russiaâs military intelligence agency. The GRU traces its roots to an organization that was set up after the......
Guelf and Ghibelline
Guelf and Ghibelline, members of two opposing factions in German and Italian politics during the Middle Ages. The......
Guild Socialism
Guild Socialism, a movement that called for workersâ control of industry through a system of national guilds operating......
gunboat diplomacy
gunboat diplomacy, refers to the use or threat of military force, most often naval power, to influence or coerce......
gunpowder empires
What started with firecrackers and signal flares became an explosive force that played a significant role in shaping......
Gwangju Uprising
Gwangju Uprising, mass protest against the South Korean military government that took place in the southern city......
généralité
généralité, the basic administrative unit of 17th- and 18th-century France. It was first established in the late......
H-1B visa
The H-1B visa is one of the most widely used work visa programs in the United States. It allows employers to hire......
Hamas
Hamas, militant Palestinian nationalist and Islamist movement in the West Bank and Gaza Strip that is dedicated......
Hamas: At a Glance
Hamas is a militant group in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank that was founded in 1987 at the beginning of the......
Hampton Court Conference
Hampton Court Conference, meeting held at Hampton Court Palace, near London, in January 1604, in response to the......
han
han, in Japanese history, fief controlled by a daimyo, or territorial lord, during the Tokugawa period (1603â1868).......
hanging chad
hanging chad, a chadâthe small piece of a paper produced in punching paper tape or cardsâthat has not completely......
Harperâs Magazine
Harperâs Magazine, monthly magazine published in New York City, one of the oldest literary and opinion journals......
Hat Act
Hat Act, (1732), in U.S. colonial history, British law restricting colonial manufacture and export of hats in direct......
Hatch Act
Hatch Act, (Aug. 2, 1939; amended July 1940), measure enacted by the U.S. Congress, aimed at eliminating corrupt......
Have Any U.S. Presidents Decided Not to Run For a Second Term?
âI shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your president,â Lyndon......
head of state
head of state, the highest representative of a sovereign state, who may or may not also be its head of government.......
Health and Human Services, U.S. Department of
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), The Department of Health and Human Services is the executive......
hegemony
hegemony, the dominance of one group over another, often supported by legitimating norms and ideas. The term hegemony......
Helsinki Accords
Helsinki Accords, (August 1, 1975), major diplomatic agreement signed in Helsinki, Finland, at the conclusion of......
hemispheric integration
hemispheric integration, the process by which countries in the Americas liberalized their trade regimes in the......
Heritage Foundation
Heritage Foundation, American conservative public policy research organization, or think tank, based in Washington,......
hermandad
hermandad, (Spanish: âbrotherhoodâ), in medieval Castile, any of a number of unions of municipalities organized......
Herodian
Herodian, one of a party of influential Jewish supporters of the Herodian dynasty (c. 55 bcâc. ad 93), which ruled......
Hezbollah
Hezbollah, ShiÊżi Lebanese political party and militant group that first emerged during Lebanonâs civil war as a......
hide
hide, in early English history, the land necessary to support a free peasant family. In the 12th and 13th centuries,......
Hindutva
Hindutva, right-wing ethno-nationalist political ideology that defines the cultural identity of India in terms......
Historical materialism
Historical materialism, theory of history associated with the German economist and philosopher Karl Marx and his......
History of U.S. Land Acquisitions
Over the course of a little more than a century, the United States transformed from a young republic along the......
History of Women in the U.S. Congress
This infographic highlights 10 Congresses that are notable in the history of womenâs fight for equal representation......
Hlutdaw
Hlutdaw, (Burmese: âPlace of Releaseâ), the primary ministerial council in Myanmar (Burma) from approximately the......
Hoa Hao
Hoa Hao, Vietnamese Buddhist religious movement that was formed in 1939 by the Buddhist reformer Huynh Phu So.......
Hollywood Ten
Hollywood Ten, in U.S. history, 10 motion-picture producers, directors, and screenwriters who appeared before the......
Holy League
Holy League, association of Roman Catholics during the French Wars of Religion of the late 16th century; it was......
Home Rule
Home Rule, in British and Irish history, movement to secure internal autonomy for Ireland within the British Empire.......
home rule
home rule, limited autonomy or self-government granted by a central or regional government to its dependent political......
Homeland Security, United States Department of
The United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created in response to the catastrophic failures of......
Hoover Commission
Hoover Commission, (1947â49, 1953â55), either of two temporary advisory bodies, both headed by the former president......
House Un-American Activities Committee
House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), committee of the U.S. House of Representatives, established in 1938......
Housing and Urban Development, U.S. Department of
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), executive division of the U.S. federal government responsible......
How Did Morocco Become the First Country to Recognize the United States?
Although French support for American independence is well known, France was actually the second country to formally......
How Do Countries Choose Their Capital Cities?
London, England. Tokyo, Japan. Buenos Aires, Argentina. They all make our lists of places to visit, and theyâre......
How Does the Electoral College Work?
American voters go to the polls on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November, but the ballots that they......
How Does the U.S. Government Define the Difference Between a Protest and a Riot?
Generally speaking, a protest in the sense relevant here is âa usually organized public demonstration of disapprovalâ......
How Holy (and Roman) Was the Holy Roman Empire?
Voltaire, it seems, was at least partially right when he famously quipped that the Holy Roman Empire was neither......
How many countries are there in Asia?
Asia is the worldâs largest and most populous continent. The number of countries in Asia varies depending on how......
How Many Countries Are There in the World?
The United Nations includes 193 member countries and 2 recognized independent nations (Vatican City and Palestine).......
How Many Electoral College Votes Does Each U.S. State Have?
This infographic provides a list of the electoral college votes per state (including the District of Columbia),......
How Many of the Signers of the U.S. Constitution Were Enslavers?
There does not appear to be a consensus on the number of men who signed the U.S. Constitutionâor, more broadly,......
How Many People Signed the U.S. Constitution?
Of the 70 delegates chosen as representatives to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, only 55 actually attended......
How Many Times Have Donald Trump and Vladimir Putin Met in Person?
U.S. Pres. Donald J. Trump and Vladimir Putin, president of Russia, met Friday, August 15, 2025, at an air force......
How much tea was dumped during the Boston Tea Party?
The Boston Tea Party saw the disposal of 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor. On the night of December 16, 1773,......
How the Dred Scott Decision Affected the U.S. Election of 1860
The Dred Scott decision of 1857 put a match to the tinderbox of sectional conflict over the future of slavery,......
How was the Thirteenth Amendment enforced in the South?
The enforcement of the Thirteenth Amendment in the South was a complex and multifaceted process that involved significant......
How Women with Military Backgrounds Are Changing the Face of Politics
There was a time when military service or national security expertise was practically a job requirement for top......
hsien
hsien, the basic unit of local government in China. The word hsien may be roughly translated as âcounty,â or âdistrict.â......
Hukbalahap Rebellion
Hukbalahap Rebellion, (1946â54), Communist-led peasant uprising in central Luzon, Philippines. The name of the......
Human Rights Campaign
Human Rights Campaign (HRC), U.S. political advocacy organization promoting equality for lesbian, gay, bisexual,......
humanitarian intervention
humanitarian intervention, actions undertaken by an organization or organizations (usually a state or a coalition......
hundred
hundred, unit of English local government and taxation, intermediate between village and shire, which survived......
Hundred Days of Reform
Hundred Days of Reform, (1898), in Chinese history, imperial attempt at renovating the Chinese state and social......
Hundred Flowers Campaign
Hundred Flowers Campaign, movement begun in May 1956 within the communist government of China to lift the restrictions......
Hundred Yearsâ War
Hundred Yearsâ War, intermittent struggle between England and France in the 14thâ15th century over a series of......
Hungarian Socialist Party
Hungarian Socialist Party (MSzP), left-wing Hungarian political party. Although the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSzP)......
Hutchins Commission
The Commission on Freedom of the Press, better known as the Hutchins Commission, was established in 1943 to examine......
Ideology
Ideology, French philosophic movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries that reduced epistemological problems......
ideology
ideology, a form of social or political philosophy in which practical elements are as prominent as theoretical......
Illyrian movement
Illyrian movement, South Slav nationalist movement (c. 1835â48). Begun in the 1830s, largely through the efforts......
iltizÄm
iltizÄm, in the Ottoman Empire, taxation system carried out by farming of public revenue. The state auctioned taxation......
imperial city
imperial city, any of the cities and towns of the Holy Roman Empire that were subject only to the authority of......
imperialism
imperialism, state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial......
impossibility theorem
impossibility theorem, in political science, the thesis that it is generally impossible to assess the common good.......
incrementalism
incrementalism, theory of public policy making, according to which policies result from a process of interaction......
India, citizenship of
citizenship of India, legal relationship between an individual and the Indian state, defined in Articles 5â11 of......
India, Constitution of
Constitution of India, the supreme law that defines the organizing principles of the Republic of India, the structure......
India, Council of
Council of India, supervisory body established in 1604 by Philip III of Spain, who also ruled Portugal. It oversaw......
India-China relations
Ties between India and China have been among the most consequential in international relations, particularly during......
India-Russia Relations
India and Russia (formerly part of the Soviet Union) are close partners whose multidimensional partnership spans......
Indian Affairs, Bureau of
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), agency of the U.S. Department of the Interior that serves as the principal link......
Indian Association
Indian Association, nationalist political group in India that favored local self-government and served as a forerunner......
Indian Lok Sabha elections of 2024
More than 968 million voters had registered ahead of Indiaâs 2024 general election, for which voting was held in......
Indian National Congress
Indian National Congress, broadly based political party of India. Founded in 1885, it dominated the Indian movement......
Indian National Lok Dal
Indian National Lok Dal (INLD), regional political party of Haryana state, northwest-central India. The partyâs......
Indian Reorganization Act
Indian Reorganization Act, (June 18, 1934), measure enacted by the U.S. Congress, aimed at decreasing federal control......
Indian Space Research Organisation
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Indian space agency, founded in 1969 to develop an independent Indian......
Indiaâs 2026 Gen Z Protests Explained
During the monsoon season of 2026, Indiaâs Generation Z led a massive countrywide protest. Its ingredients were......
Indiaâs environmental timeline
Modern environmental legislation in India emerged during British colonial rule, as forests, wildlife, pollution,......
Indies, Council of the
Council of the Indies, supreme governing body of Spainâs colonies in America (1524â1834). Composed of between 6......
Indies, Laws of the
Laws of the Indies, the entire body of law promulgated by the Spanish crown during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries......
individualism
individualism, political and social philosophy that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual. Although the......
Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle
Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), political party in Indonesia formed in 1973 through the forced......
industrial espionage
industrial espionage, acquisition of trade secrets from business competitors. A by-product of the technological......
Industrial Workers of the World
Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), labour organization founded in Chicago in 1905 by representatives of 43......
Inkatha Freedom Party
Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP), cultural movement and political party in South Africa that derives its main support......
institution
institution, in political science, a set of formal rules (including constitutions), informal norms, or shared understandings......
institutional performance
institutional performance, quality of public-service provision. The concept focuses on the performance of various......
Institutional Revolutionary Party
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), Mexican political party that dominated the countryâs political institutions......
insurgency
insurgency, term historically restricted to rebellious acts that did not reach the proportions of an organized......