Politics & Political Systems, POL-ROU
Monarchies, republics, democracies, dictatorships, and hybrids of every kind all offer ways of organizing power. Explore the systems and ideas through which societies govern themselves.
Politics & Political Systems Encyclopedia Articles By Title
poll tax
poll tax, in English history, a tax of a uniform amount levied on each individual, or “head.” Of the poll taxes......
polyarchy
polyarchy, concept coined by the American political scientist Robert Dahl to denote the acquisition of democratic......
Popish Plot
Popish Plot, (1678), in English history, a totally fictitious but widely believed plot in which it was alleged......
Popolare
Popolare, an Italian political party organized in 1919 and inspired by Christian Socialist principles. The formation......
popolo
popolo, (Italian: “people”), in the communes (city-states) of 13th-century Italy, a pressure group instituted to......
popular front
popular front, any coalition of working-class and middle-class parties united for the defense of democratic forms......
Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola
Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola, Angolan political party that has ruled the country since 1975. It......
Popular Party
Popular Party, Spanish conservative political party. The Popular Party (PP) traces its origins to the Popular Alliance,......
Popular Republican Movement
Popular Republican Movement, former French social reform party whose policies corresponded largely to the European......
popular sovereignty
Popular sovereignty, in political theory, is a doctrine or principle according to which government is or should......
populism
populism, political program or movement that champions, or claims to champion, the common person, usually by favourable......
Populist Movement
Populist Movement, in U.S. history, politically oriented coalition of agrarian reformers in the Midwest and South......
Porfiriato
Porfiriato, the period of Porfirio Díaz’s presidency of Mexico (1876–80; 1884–1911), an era of dictatorial rule......
postcolonialism
postcolonialism, the historical period or state of affairs representing the aftermath of Western colonialism; the......
Power
Power, in political science and sociology, the capacity to influence, lead, dominate, or otherwise have an impact......
power, balance of
balance of power, in international relations, the posture and policy of a nation or group of nations protecting......
powers, separation of
separation of powers, division of the legislative, executive, and judicial functions of government among separate......
Poznań Riots
Poznań Riots, (June 1956), uprising of Polish industrial workers that caused a crisis among the Polish communist......
Pragmatic Sanction of Emperor Charles VI
Pragmatic Sanction of Emperor Charles VI, (April 19, 1713), decree promulgated by the Holy Roman emperor Charles......
Prarthana Samaj
Prarthana Samaj, (Sanskrit: “Prayer Society”), Hindu reform society established in Bombay in the 1860s. In purpose......
precautionary principle
precautionary principle, approach in policy making that legitimizes the adoption of preventative measures to address......
presidency of the United States of America
presidency of the United States of America, chief executive office of the United States. In contrast to many countries......
President’s Commission on the Status of Women
President’s Commission on the Status of Women, advisory commission established on December 14, 1961, by U.S. President......
primary election
primary election, in the United States, an election to select candidates to run for public office. Primaries may......
Privy Council
Privy Council, historically, the British sovereign’s private council. Once powerful, the Privy Council has long......
Progressive Bloc
Progressive Bloc, coalition of moderate conservatives and liberals in the fourth Russian Duma (elected legislative......
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada, former national political party in Canada, historically (with the Liberal......
Progressive Democrats
Progressive Democrats, conservative political party that was founded in 1985 as a result of a split within Ireland’s......
Progressive Federal Party
Progressive Federal Party (PFP), former South African political party established in 1977 in the merger of the......
Progressive Party
Progressive Party, (1924), in the United States, a short-lived independent political party assembled for the 1924......
Progressive Party
Progressive Party, (1948), in the United States, a dissident political faction founded in 1947 by Henry A. Wallace,......
progressivism
progressivism, in the United States, political and social-reform movement that brought major changes to American......
Prohibition Party
Prohibition Party, oldest minor U.S. political party still in existence. It was founded in 1869 to campaign for......
Project 2025
Project 2025 is a wide-ranging set of conservative to ultraconservative recommendations regarding U.S. government......
Project Paperclip
Project Paperclip, U.S. government program that sponsored the post-World War II immigration of German and Austrian......
Promoters Revolution
Promoters Revolution, (June 24, 1932), in the history of Thailand, a bloodless coup that overthrew the Thai king,......
Propaganda Movement
Propaganda Movement, reform and national consciousness movement that arose among young Filipino expatriates in......
proportional representation
proportional representation, electoral system that seeks to create a representative body that reflects the overall......
protofascism
protofascism, a political movement that predates and usually contributes to the emergence of fascism in a given......
public administration
public administration, the implementation of government policies. Today public administration is often regarded......
public diplomacy
public diplomacy, any of various government-sponsored efforts aimed at communicating directly with foreign publics.......
public investment
public investment, investment by the state in particular assets, whether through central or local governments or......
public reason
public reason, in political philosophy, a moral ideal requiring that political decisions be reasonably justifiable......
Public Works Administration
Public Works Administration (PWA), in U.S. history, New Deal government agency (1933–39) designed to reduce unemployment......
Qingliu Dang
Qingliu Dang, group of conservative Chinese officials who advocated a return to traditional Confucian moral principles......
Quadruple Alliance
Quadruple Alliance, alliance formed on April 22, 1834, between Britain, France, and the more liberal claimants......
quantitative easing
quantitative easing (QE), a set of unconventional monetary policies that may be implemented by a central bank to......
Quartering Act
Quartering Act, (1765), in American colonial history, the British parliamentary provision (actually an amendment......
Quebec Act
Quebec Act, act of the British Parliament in 1774 that vested the government of Quebec in a governor and council......
Quebec referendum of 1995
Quebec referendum of 1995, referendum held in the Canadian province of Quebec on October 30, 1995, that proposed......
Quiet Revolution
Quiet Revolution, period of rapid social and political change experienced in Québec during the 1960s. This vivid......
radical
radical, in politics, one who desires extreme change of part or all of the social order. The word was first used......
Radical Civic Union
Radical Civic Union (UCR), major centre-left political party in Argentina. For much of the 20th century, the Radical......
Radical Republican
Radical Republican, during and after the American Civil War, a member of the Republican Party committed to emancipation......
Radical-Socialist Party
Radical-Socialist Party, the oldest of the French political parties, officially founded in 1901 but tracing back......
Rally for the Republic
Rally for the Republic, former French political party formed by Jacques Chirac in 1976 that presumed to be heir......
RAND Corporation
RAND Corporation, nonpartisan think tank whose original focus was national security. It grew out of a research-and-development......
ranked voting
Ranked voting is a method of election in which voters rank candidates in order of preference. If any single candidate......
Ranks, Table of
Table of Ranks, (Jan. 24, 1722), classification of grades in the Russian military, naval, and civil services into......
RAPP
RAPP, association formed in the Soviet Union in 1928 out of various groups of proletarian writers who were dedicated......
Rashtriya Janata Dal
Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), regional political party in Bihar state, eastern India. It has also had a presence......
Raskol
Raskol, division in the Russian Orthodox Church in the 17th century over reforms in liturgy and forms of worship.......
realism
realism, set of related theories of international relations that emphasizes the role of the state, national interest,......
realpolitik
realpolitik, politics based on practical objectives rather than on ideals. The word does not mean “real” in the......
recall election
recall election, method of election in which voters can oust elected officials before their official terms have......
Reclamation, U.S. Bureau of
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, section of the U.S. Department of the Interior charged with the construction and management......
Reconstruction Finance Corporation
Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), U.S. government agency established by Congress on January 22, 1932, to......
Red Army Faction
Red Army Faction (RAF), West German radical leftist group formed in 1968 and popularly named after two of its early......
Red Scare
Red Scare, period of public fear and anxiety over the supposed rise of communist or socialist ideologies in a noncommunist......
referendum and initiative
referendum and initiative, electoral devices by which voters may express their wishes with regard to government......
Reform Bill
Reform Bill, any of the British parliamentary bills that became acts in 1832, 1867, and 1884–85 and that expanded......
Reform Party
Reform Party, political movement in Canada West (later called Upper Canada from 1841 to 1867; now Ontario) and......
Reform UK
Reform UK, populist far-right political party in the United Kingdom. Since it was launched in 2019 as part of an......
refugee
refugee, any uprooted, homeless, involuntary migrant who has crossed a frontier and no longer possesses the protection......
regime
regime, an institution with clear substantive and geographical limits, bound by explicit rules, and agreed on by......
Remembering Malcolm X
Activist Malcolm X would have turned 90 years old on May 19, 2015. A passionate and gifted orator, Malcolm X rose......
representation
representation, in government, method or process of enabling the citizenry, or some of them, to participate in......
representative democracy
representative democracy, political system in which citizens of a country or other political entity vote for representatives......
Representatives, House of
House of Representatives, one of the two houses of the bicameral United States Congress, established in 1789 by......
republic
republic, form of government in which a state is ruled by representatives of the citizen body. Modern republics......
Republican National Committee
Republican National Committee (RNC), American political organization that oversees the activities of the Republican......
Republican National Convention
Republican National Convention, quadrennial meeting of the U.S. Republican Party to select its presidential and......
Republican Party
Republican Party, in the United States, one of the two major political parties, the other being the Democratic......
Republican Party
Republican Party, in U.S. history, political party formed from the nucleus of the Anti-Federalists and the country’s......
Republican Party
Republican Party, French political party formed in May 1977 when the former National Foundation of Independent......
Republican People’s Party
Republican People’s Party (CHP), oldest political party in Turkey (Türkiye), created by the country’s founder,......
Republicans, The
The Republicans (REP), German ultranationalist political party, founded in West Germany in 1983. Although they......
Return to normalcy
Return to normalcy, central campaign slogan of Republican nominee Warren G. Harding’s successful campaign for the......
revisionism
revisionism, in Marxist thought, originally the late 19th-century effort of Eduard Bernstein to revise Marxist......
revolution
revolution, in social and political science, a major, sudden, and hence typically violent alteration in government......
right
right, portion of the political spectrum associated with conservative political thought. The term derives from......
Rights, Bill of
Bill of Rights, one of the basic instruments of the British constitution, the result of the long 17th-century struggle......
Rikken Seiyūkai
Rikken Seiyūkai, the dominant Japanese political party from its inception in 1900 until 1940, when all parties......
Riksdag
Riksdag, (Swedish: “Day of the Realm”), the Swedish states general from 1435 to 1865, unique in Europe because......
Romanian National Party
Romanian National Party, political organization formed in Transylvania in 1881, dedicated to obtaining autonomy......
Rooney Rule
The Rooney Rule is a requirement implemented by the National Football League (NFL) in 2003 that teams must interview......
Roskosmos
Roskosmos, Russian government organization founded in 1992 that is responsible for managing the Russian space program.......
rotten borough
rotten borough, depopulated election district that retains its original representation. The term was first applied......
Roundhead
Roundhead, adherent of the Parliamentary Party during the English Civil War (1642–51) and after. Many Puritans......