Age of Revolutions, POR-SCH
The age of revolutions was an era of upheaval, when empires shook, monarchies fell, and new ideas about liberty, citizenship, and political power changed the course of history.
Age of Revolutions Encyclopedia Articles By Title
Porter, Fitz-John
Fitz-John Porter was a Union general during the American Civil War who was court-martialed and cashieredâbut later......
Portugal
Portugal, country lying along the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. Once continental......
- Introduction
- Atlantic Coast, Algarve, Azores
- Madeira Islands, Atlantic, Autonomous Region
- Mediterranean, Atlantic, Temperate
- Wildlife, Flora, Fauna
- Coastal, Rural, Urban
- Economy, Agriculture, Tourism
- Resources, Power, Economy
- Parliamentary Democracy, Autonomous Regions, EU Member
- Politics, Constitution, Elections
- Cuisine, Music, Traditions
- Architecture, Moorish, Gothic
- Museums, Castles, Monasteries
- Age of Discovery, Reconquista, Iberian Peninsula
- Reconquista, Iberian Peninsula, Atlantic
- House of Aviz, 15th Century, Age of Discovery
- Medieval, Social, Economic
- Sea Trade, Exploration, Colonization
- Enlightenment, Revolution, Empire
- Constitutionalism, Autonomy, Sovereignty
- Exploration, Colonization, Trade
- Revolution, Republic, Autonomy
- Revolution, Autocracy, Dictatorship
- Atlantic, EU, Tourism
- Sovereign Debt, Eurozone, Crisis
Porvenir Massacre
Porvenir Massacre, incident on January 28, 1918, in which Texas Rangers, white ranchers, and U.S. Cavalry soldiers......
Pressburg, Treaty of
Treaty of Pressburg, (Dec. 26, 1805), agreement signed by Austria and France at Pressburg (now Bratislava, Slovakia)......
Prevost, Sir George, 1st Baronet
Sir George Prevost, 1st Baronet was a soldier in the service of Great Britain, who was governor in chief (1811â15)......
Price, Richard
Richard Price was a British moral philosopher, expert on insurance and finance, and ardent supporter of the American......
Price, Sterling
Sterling Price was an antebellum governor of Missouri, and Confederate general during the U.S. Civil War. After......
Prieur, Pierre-Louis
Pierre-Louis Prieur was a French political figure, a member of the Committee of Public Safety, which ruled Revolutionary......
Prieur-Duvernois, Claude-Antoine
Claude-Antoine Prieur-Duvernois was a French military engineer who was a member of the Committee of Public Safety,......
prime ministers of Australia, list of
Australia, established as a federated union in 1901, is a constitutional monarchy, and its government is led by......
Prussia
Prussia, in European history, any of certain areas of eastern and central Europe, respectively (1) the land of......
Prussian Civil Code
Prussian Civil Code, (âGeneral State Lawâ), the law of the Prussian states, begun during the reign of Frederick......
Pryor
Pryor, city, seat (1907) of Mayes county, northern Oklahoma, U.S., located northeast of Tulsa. It was settled in......
Public Safety, Committee of
Committee of Public Safety, political body of the French Revolution that gained virtual dictatorial control over......
Putnam, Israel
Israel Putnam was an American general in the American Revolution. After moving to Pomfret, Connecticut, about 1740,......
Putnam, Rufus
Rufus Putnam was an American soldier and pioneer settler in Ohio. Putnam fought in the French and Indian War from......
PuĆaski, Kazimierz
Kazimierz PuĆaski was a Polish patriot and U.S. colonial army officer, hero of the Polish anti-Russian insurrection......
Pyramids, Battle of the
Battle of the Pyramids, (July 21, 1798), military engagement in which Napoleon Bonaparte and his French troops......
PĂ©lissier, Aimable-Jean-Jacques, duc de Malakoff
Aimable-Jean-Jacques PĂ©lissier, duc de Malakoff was a French general during the Algerian conquest and the last......
PĂ©rignon, Dominique-Catherine, marquis de
Dominique-Catherine, marquis de PĂ©rignon was a general and marshal of France, active during the Revolutionary and......
PĂ©tion de Villeneuve, JĂ©rĂŽme
JĂ©rĂŽme PĂ©tion de Villeneuve was a politician of the French Revolution who was at first a close associate, and later......
Quadruple Alliance
Quadruple Alliance, alliance first formed in 1813, during the final phase of the Napoleonic Wars, by Britain, Russia,......
Quantrill, William C.
William C. Quantrill was the captain of a guerrilla band irregularly attached to the Confederate Army during the......
Quebec, Battle of
Battle of Quebec, (September 13, 1759), in the French and Indian War, decisive defeat of the French under the marquis......
Quebec, Battle of
Battle of Quebec, (December 31, 1775), in the American Revolution, unsuccessful American attack on the British......
Queenston Heights, Battle of
Battle of Queenston Heights, (Oct. 13, 1812), serious U.S. reverse in the War of 1812, sustained during an abortive......
Radetzky, Joseph, Graf
Joseph, Graf Radetzky was an Austrian field marshal and military reformer whose long record of victorious campaigns......
Radical Republican
Radical Republican, during and after the American Civil War, a member of the Republican Party committed to emancipation......
Radowitz, Joseph Maria von
Joseph Maria von Radowitz was a conservative Prussian diplomat and general who was the first statesman to attempt......
Raglan, FitzRoy James Henry Somerset, 1st Baron
FitzRoy James Henry Somerset, 1st Baron Raglan was a field marshal and the first British commander in chief during......
RaĆĄĂn, Alois
Alois RaĆĄĂn was a Czech statesman, one of the founders and first finance minister of the Republic of Czechoslovakia.......
Reclus, ĂlisĂ©e
ĂlisĂ©e Reclus was a French geographer and anarchist who was awarded the gold medal of the Paris Geographical Society......
Reconstruction
Reconstruction, in U.S. history, the period (1865â77) that followed the American Civil War and during which attempts......
Reconstruction Acts
Reconstruction Acts, U.S. legislation enacted in 1867â68 that outlined the conditions under which the Southern......
Red Army
Red Army, Soviet army created by the Communist government after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. The name Red......
Red River Campaign
Red River Campaign, (March 10âMay 22, 1864), in the American Civil War, unsuccessful Union effort to seize control......
Reding, Aloys
Aloys Reding was a Swiss politician and military hero who was for a time (1801â02) head of state of the short-lived......
Redl, Alfred
Alfred Redl was the chief of intelligence for the Austrian army from 1907 to 1912 and at the same time the chief......
Reed, John
John Reed was a U.S. poet-adventurer whose short life as a revolutionary writer and activist made him the hero......
Remembering World War I
In late July and early August 1914, the great powers of Europe embarked on a course of action that would claim......
Revere, Paul
Paul Revere was a folk hero of the American Revolution whose dramatic horseback ride on the night of April 18,......
revolution
revolution, in social and political science, a major, sudden, and hence typically violent alteration in government......
Revolutionary Tribunal
Revolutionary Tribunal, court that was instituted in Paris by the National Convention during the French Revolution......
Rhodes, James Ford
James Ford Rhodes was an American businessman and historian, best known for his multivolume investigation of the......
Richmond Bread Riot
Richmond Bread Riot, riot in Richmond, Virginia, on April 2, 1863, that was spawned by food deprivation during......
Rieger, FrantiĆĄek Ladislav
FrantiĆĄek Ladislav Rieger was a politician and leader of the more conservative Czech nationalists who was the principal......
Roberts, Frederick Sleigh Roberts, 1st Earl, Viscount St. Pierre
Frederick Sleigh Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts was a British field marshal, an outstanding combat leader in the Second......
Robespierre, Maximilien
Maximilien Robespierre was a radical Jacobin leader and one of the principal figures in the French Revolution.......
Rochambeau, Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, comte de
Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau was a French general who supported the American Revolution......
Rockingham, Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd marquess of
Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd marquess of Rockingham was the prime minister of Great Britain from July 1765 to......
Rodbertus, Johann Karl
Johann Karl Rodbertus was an economist who, because of his conservative interpretation of social reform, was instrumental......
Rogers, Robert
Robert Rogers was an American frontier soldier who raised and commanded a militia force, known as Rogersâs Rangers,......
Roland, Jean-Marie
Jean-Marie Roland was a French industrial scientist who, largely through his wifeâs ambition, became a leader of......
Roland, Jeanne-Marie
Jeanne-Marie Roland was the wife of Jean-Marie Roland, who directed her husbandâs political career during the French......
Romanov dynasty
Romanov dynasty, rulers of Russia from 1613 until the Russian Revolution of February 1917. Descendants of Andrey......
Romney, Henry Sidney, earl of
Henry Sidney, earl of Romney was an English statesman who played a leading role in the Revolution of 1688â89. The......
Roon, Albrecht Theodor Emil, Graf von
Albrecht Theodor Emil, count von Roon was a Prussian army officer who, with Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and General......
Roosevelt, Theodore
Theodore Roosevelt was the 26th president of the United States (1901â09) and a writer, naturalist, and soldier.......
Rosecrans, William S
William S. Rosecrans was a Union general and excellent strategist early in the American Civil War (1861â65); after......
Rough Rider
Rough Rider, in the Spanish-American War, member of a regiment of U.S. cavalry volunteers recruited by Theodore......
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Swiss-born philosopher, writer, and political theorist whose treatises and novels inspired......
Roux, Jacques
Jacques Roux was a French priest who became the leader of the democratic extremists known as the Enragés (literally......
Rowan, Andrew Summers
Andrew Summers Rowan was a U.S. Army officer, bearer of the âmessage to Garcia.â Rowan graduated from West Point......
Russia
Russia, country that stretches over a vast expanse of eastern Europe and northern Asia. Once the preeminent republic......
- Introduction
- Ural Mountains, Natural Resources, Climate
- Climate, Continental, Arctic
- Forests, Biodiversity, Taiga
- Orthodoxy, Paganism, Islam
- Energy, Manufacturing, Agriculture
- Manufacturing, Industry, Resources
- Federalism, Autonomy, Diversity
- Justice, Law, Courts
- Housing, Urbanization, Architecture
- Culture, Traditions, Arts
- Culture, Traditions, Cuisine
- Folk, Classical, Choral
- Art, Architecture, Iconography
- Film Industry, Cinema, Movies
- Sports, Recreation, Culture
- Soviet Union, Tsardom, Revolution
- Kiev Decline, Slavic Tribes, Mongol Invasion
- Novgorod, History, Culture
- Tatar Rule, Mongol Invasion, Golden Horde
- Rurikid, Muscovy, Expansion
- Ivan IV, Tsardom, Expansion
- Time of Troubles, Ivan IV, Dynastic Crisis
- Romanov, Muscovy, Tsardom
- The Great Schism, Orthodoxy, Autocracy
- The Petrine state
- Peter's Reforms, Tsars, Expansion
- Catherine II, Enlightenment, Expansion
- Administration, Reforms, Expansion
- Russia from 1801 to 1917
- Expansion, Tsars, Revolution
- From Alexander II to Nicholas II
- Russification, Policies, Imperialism
- Tsardom, Revolution, Soviet Union
- Revolution, Tsarism, Autocracy
- Soviet Union, Cold War, Eurasia
- Civil War, War Communism, Revolution
- Stalinism, Soviet Union, Cold War
- Khrushchev, Soviet Union, Cold War
- Perestroika, Glasnost, Reforms
- Post-Soviet Russia
- Ethnic Diversity, Near Abroad, Post-Soviet States
- Politics, Economy, Geography
- Politics, Economy, Geography
- Tsars, Soviets, Putin
Russian Civil War
Russian Civil War, (1918â20), conflict in which the Red Army successfully defended the newly formed Bolshevik government......
Russian Empire
Russian Empire, historical empire founded on November 2 (October 22, Old Style), 1721, when the Russian Senate......
- Introduction
- Peter I, Expansion, Reforms
- Expansion, Reforms, Revolution
- Catherine the Great, Expansion, Reforms
- Tsar Paul, Reforms, Expansion
- Nationalism, Reaction, Reforms
- Autocracy, Reforms, Nicholas I
- Alexander II, Reforms, Autocracy
- Revolution, Movements, Tsars
- Expansion, Reforms, Revolution
- Alexander III, Autocracy, Reforms
- Nicholas II, Autocracy, Reforms
- Russification, Autocracy, Centralization
- Revolution, 1905, Dumas
- Tsar, Revolution, WWI
Russian Provisional Government
Russian Provisional Government, internationally recognized government of Russia from February to October (March......
Russian Revolution
Russian Revolution, two revolutions in 1917, the first of which, in February (March, New Style), overthrew the......
Russo-Turkish wars
Russo-Turkish wars, series of wars between Russia and the Ottoman Empire in the 17thâ19th century. The wars reflected......
Sacagawea
Sacagawea was a Shoshone Indian woman who, as an interpreter, traveled thousands of wilderness miles with the Lewis......
Sackville, George Sackville-Germain, 1st Viscount, Baron Bolebrooke of Sussex
George Sackville-Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville was an English soldier and politician. He was dismissed from the......
Safford, Mary Jane
Mary Jane Safford was an American physician whose extensive nursing experience during the Civil War determined......
Sagasta, PrĂĄxedes Mateo
PrĂĄxedes Mateo Sagasta was a seven-time prime minister of Spain (1871â72, 1874, 1881â83, 1885â90, 1892â95, 1897â99,......
SaigĆ Takamori
SaigĆ Takamori was a leader in the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate who later rebelled against the weaknesses......
Saint Albans Raid
Saint Albans Raid, (Oct. 19, 1864), in the American Civil War, a Confederate raid from Canada into Union territory;......
Saint-André, André Jeanbon
André Jeanbon Saint-André was a French Protestant clergyman who became a member of the Committee of Public Safety......
Saint-Arnaud, Armand-Jacques Leroy de
Armand-Jacques Leroy de Saint-Arnaud was an army officer and later marshal of France who was minister of war under......
Saint-Just, Louis de
Louis de Saint-Just was a controversial ideologue of the French Revolution, one of the most zealous advocates of......
Saintes, Battle of the
Battle of the Saintes, in the American Revolution, major naval victory on April 9â12, 1782, for Britain in the......
Saionji Kimmochi
Saionji Kimmochi was the longest-surviving member of the oligarchy that governed Japan after the Meiji Restoration......
Sakamoto RyĆma
Sakamoto RyĆma was a noted imperial loyalist whose effort to forge the Satsuma-ChĆshĆ« Alliance (1866) between those......
Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument
Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument, well-preserved remains of ancient Native American pueblos and 17th-century......
Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd marquess of, Earl Of SalisburyViscount Cranborne, Baron Cecil Of Essendon
Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd marquess of Salisbury was a Conservative political leader who was a three-time......
Salomon, Haym
Haym Salomon was a Polish-born American businessman who was a principal financier of the fledgling American republic......
Sampson, Deborah
Deborah Sampson was an American Revolutionary soldier and one of the earliest female lecturers in the country.......
Sampson, William T
William T. Sampson was a U.S. naval officer who, as head of the North Atlantic squadron, masterminded U.S. naval......
San Juan Hill, Battle of
Battle of San Juan Hill, the most significant U.S. land victory, and one of the final battles, of the Spanish-American......
San MartĂn, JosĂ© de
JosĂ© de San MartĂn was an Argentine soldier, statesman, and national hero who helped lead the revolutions against......
Sandwich, John Montagu, 4th earl of
John Montagu, 4th earl of Sandwich was a British first lord of the Admiralty during the American Revolution (1776â81)......
SanjĆ Sanetomi
SanjĆ Sanetomi was a radical court noble who was instrumental in the Meiji Restoration (1868), which ended the......
sansculotte
sansculotte, in the French Revolution, a label for the more militant supporters of that movement, especially in......
Santa Anna, Antonio LĂłpez de
Antonio LĂłpez de Santa Anna was a Mexican army officer and statesman who was the storm centre of Mexicoâs politics......
Santiago de Cuba, Battle of
Battle of Santiago de Cuba, concluding naval engagement of the Spanish-American War, fought on July 3, 1898, near......
Santo Domingo, Battle of
Battle of Santo Domingo, British naval victory over a French flotilla during the Napoleonic Wars, fought in the......
Saratoga, Battles of
Battles of Saratoga, in the American Revolution, closely related engagements in the autumn of 1777. The Battles......
Sardinia
Sardinia, kingdom of the house of Savoy from 1720, which was centred on the lands of Piedmont (in northwestern......
Saumarez, James Saumarez, 1st Baron of
James Saumarez, 1st Baron of Saumarez was a British admiral who fought with consistent success in the French Revolutionary......
Savannah, Capture of
Stalemate in their war with the Americans in the north and concern over French attacks against British-held Caribbean......
Savary, Anne-Jean-Marie-René, duc de Rovigo
Anne-Jean-Marie-René Savary, duc de Rovigo was a French general, administrator, and trusted servant of Napoleon......
Scharnhorst, Gerhard Johann David von
Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst was a Prussian general who developed the modern general staff system. With......