Robotics
What is robotics?
Who coined the term robot?
What are the main components of a robot?
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Robotics, design, construction, and use of machines (robots) to perform tasks done traditionally by human beings. Robots are widely used in such industries as automobile manufacturing to perform simple repetitive tasks and in industries where work must be performed in environments hazardous to humans. Many aspects of robotics involve artificial intelligence (AI); robots may be equipped with the equivalent of human senses such as vision, touch, and the ability to sense temperature. Some are capable of simple decision-making, and current robotics research is geared toward devising robots with a degree of self-sufficiency that will permit mobility and decision-making in an unstructured environment. Today’s industrial robots do not resemble human beings; a robot in human form is called an android.
History: Ideas and implementations
Precursors of robotics concepts can be traced to ancient civilizations, which imagined mechanical beings capable of imitating life. One of the earliest examples in European legend appears in Greek mythology in the figure of Talos, a giant bronze automaton said to have been created by the god Hephaestus to guard the island of Crete by patrolling its shores and hurling stones at invading ships. Although mythical rather than technological, Talos reflected an early human fascination with artificial life and autonomous machines. Greek engineer Heron of Alexandria later described actual automatic devices powered by water, steam, and weights in the 1st century ce; Chinese engineers, such as Su Song in the 11th century, developed sophisticated water-driven astronomical clocks with mechanical figurines; and Islamic engineers, including al-Jazarī in the 13th century, designed elaborate clocks and automatons. During the Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci designed a mechanical knight capable of limited movement, reflecting an early attempt to reproduce human actions through machinery.
The modern conception of robots emerged in the 20th century. The Czech playwright Karel Čapek used the term robot in his 1920 drama R.U.R.: Rossum’s Universal Robots, derived from the Czech word robota, meaning “forced labor” or “drudgery.” The related term robotics was later popularized by science fiction writer Isaac Asimov through his 1942 short story “Runaround.” Asimov also formulated the influential three laws of robotics, a fictional ethical framework intended to govern robot behavior. Although originally literary concepts, Asimov’s ideas shaped public discussion about machine intelligence and robot ethics.
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Technological advances after World War II transformed robotics from a primarily theoretical concern into practical engineering. In the 1950s American inventor George Devol created a robotic arm called Unimate. Engineer and physicist Joseph Engelberger joined Devol to commercialize Unimate. It was installed in a General Motors factory, making it the first programmable industrial robot. Unimate performed repetitive and hazardous manufacturing tasks, marking the beginning of industrial robotics.
By the 1980s researchers were developing increasingly mobile and social robots. Autonomous vehicles and research platforms such as Navlab, developed by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University in the mid-1980s, used sensors, mapping, and path-planning systems to navigate changing environments. Experimental social robots, such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Kismet in the 1990s, were designed to respond to human speech, facial expressions, and gestures.
In the 2000s robotics expanded by automating everyday tasks and specialized operations alike: iRobot introduced the Roomba robotic vacuum in 2002, and the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency’s Grand Challenges in 2004 and 2005 accelerated research into self-driving vehicles. NASA’s Curiosity rover demonstrated autonomous navigation on Mars in 2012, a function improved upon by the Perseverance rover nearly a decade later.
Why do some humanoid robot designs, especially ones in which the faces are meant to mimic human faces, bother us? Japanese roboticist Masahiro Mori proposed that as human likeness increases in an object’s design, so does one’s affinity for the object—but only to a certain point, giving rise to the phenomenon called the “uncanny valley.” According to this theory, when the artificial likeness nears total accuracy, affinity drops dramatically and is replaced by a feeling of eeriness or uncanniness. Affinity then rises again when true human likeness—resembling a living person—is reached. This sudden decrease and increase caused by the feeling of uncanniness creates a “valley” in the level of affinity.
Components and operation
Although robots vary in form and function, most share several essential components: a mechanical structure, actuators, sensors, a control system, and a power supply.
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- Sensors: Sensors provide information about the robot’s environment and internal condition. Cameras, microphones, temperature sensors, pressure sensors, lidar (light detection and ranging) systems, and touch sensors allow robots to perceive surroundings by converting physical stimuli into electrical impulses.
- Power supply: A power supply, such as a battery or electrical source, provides the energy necessary for operation.
- Actuators: Actuators function as the robot’s “muscles” and convert energy from the power supply into physical motion. Electric motors are commonly used in mobile and industrial robots, whereas hydraulic actuators are often employed when greater force is required.
- Structure: The robot’s structure or body determines its range of motion and physical capabilities. Industrial robotic arms, for example, are designed for precision and strength, whereas humanoid robots are built to imitate human movement.
- Control system: The control system acts as the robot’s brain, processing sensor data and directing actuators. Modern robots frequently rely on microprocessors and specialized software to coordinate movement, interpret sensory input, and make decisions. Some systems employ AI and machine-learning algorithms, enabling robots to adapt to changing conditions or improve performance over time.
Future and challenges
Robotics has had major economic and social effects. Automation has increased productivity, improved product quality, and reduced the need for humans to perform dangerous or physically demanding tasks. Robots are widely used in hazardous construction environments, medicine, manufacturing, and disaster response. At the same time robotics has raised significant debate: A reduction in human employment opportunities, safety concerns, and the ethical implications of autonomous systems and AI remain contentious issues.
Robotics research continues to focus on improving autonomy, adaptability, and human-robot interaction. Advances in machine learning, computer vision, and sensor technology are expected to expand the use of robots in health care, logistics, environmental monitoring, and elder care. Emerging areas such as swarm robotics (which explores the use of systems of robots), soft robotics (which uses materials softer than metal and hard plastics to mimic human or animal motor abilities), and bio-inspired systems are growing rapidly, although challenges involving cybersecurity, cost, environmental impact, and public trust remain.