compact bone, dense bone in which the bony matrix is solidly filled with organic ground substance and inorganic salts, leaving only tiny spaces (lacunae) that contain the osteocytes, or bone cells. Compact bone makes up 80 percent of the human skeleton; the remainder is cancellous bone, which has a

pain: Physiology of pain: …in the marginal zone and substantia gelatinosa of the gray matter of the spinal cord. That area is responsible for regulating and modulating the incoming impulses. Two different pathways, the spinothalamic and spinoreticular tracts, transmit impulses to the brainstem and thalamus. Spinothalamic input is thought to effect the conscious sensation…

dopamine: …with cellular death in the substantia nigra results in Parkinson disease. Dopamine-receptor agonists, which bind to dopamine receptors on dopamine-producing neurons in the neurotransmitter’s absence, can increase dopaminergic activity in the brain, helping to lessen Parkinson symptoms.

Aristotle: Form: A substantial form is a second substance (species or kind) considered as a universal; the predicate human, for example, is universal as well as substantial. Thus, Socrates is human may be described as predicating a second substance of a first substance (Socrates) or as predicating a…

direct dye, any of a class of coloured, water-soluble compounds that have an affinity for fibre and are taken up directly, such as the benzidine derivatives. Direct dyes are usually cheap and easily applied, and they can yield bright colours. Washfastness is poor but may be improved by

empiricism: Substantive empiricism: …empiricism is that of the substantive empiricists, who are unconvinced by attempts that have been made to interpret formal concepts empirically and who therefore concede that formal concepts are a priori, though they deny that status to categorial concepts and to the theoretical concepts of physics, which they hold are…

equal opportunity: Fairness and equality: …resulting position is often called fair, or substantive, equal opportunity, in contrast to the formal equal opportunity provided by open competition on its own.

procedural law: …law is commonly contrasted with substantive law, which constitutes the great body of law and defines and regulates legal rights and duties. Thus, whereas substantive law would describe how two people might enter into a contract, procedural law would explain how someone alleging a breach of contract might seek the…

procedural law: Substantive private law, which deals with the relations between private (i.e., nongovernmental) persons, whether individuals or corporate bodies, has as its corollary the rules of civil procedure. Because the object of judicial proceedings is to arrive at the truth by using the best available evidence,…

motion-picture technology: Film: In a modification called the substantive process, the appropriate dye couplers are suitably embedded in the emulsion in the appropriate color layers to prevent their moving about during processing and contaminating the colors (an important problem). It is then possible to carry out the second exposure and development on all…

dye: Dye retention: …such interactions is termed its substantivity. Dyes can be classified by their substantivity, which depends, in part, on the nature of the substituents in the dye molecule.

Ernst Cassirer: …work, Substanzbegriff und Funktionsbegriff (1910; Substance and Function), he treated the related topic of concept formation. Attacking the view that a concept is formed by abstracting from a number of particular instances, he argued that the concept, as an instrument in organizing human knowledge, is already pre-existent before any task…

electric power: …to bulk delivery points, or substations, from which it is distributed to consumers. Transmission is accomplished by an extensive network of high-voltage power lines, including overhead wires and underground and submarine cables. Voltages higher than those suitable for power plant generators are required when transmitting alternating current over long distances…

Pete Townshend: The Who: …Anywhere,” “My Generation,” and “Substitute.” The band continued to attract attention in Britain with its 1967 album The Who Sell Out, a pioneering concept album devised by Townshend that criticized excessive commercialism.

organometallic compound: Alkene and alkyne ligands: Substituted acetylenes form very stable polymetallic complexes in which the acetylene can be regarded as a four-electron donor. An example is η2-diphenylethynehexacarbonyldicobalt, in which four of the six electrons in the triple bond of the ethyene ligand, R―C≡C―R, are shared with the two cobalt atoms…

formal logic: Axiomatization of PC: …axiom”; analogous schemata can be substituted for the other axioms. The number of axioms would then become infinite, but, on the other hand, the rule of substitution would no longer be needed, and modus ponens could be the only transformation rule. This method makes no difference to the theorems that…

substitution, in Greek or Latin prosody, the replacement of a prosodic element that is required or expected at a given place in a given metre by another which is more or less equivalent in temporal quantity. In modern prosody, substitution refers to the use within a metrical series of a foot other

baseball: Substitutions: The use of a substitute as an offensive tactic most commonly involves sending in a pinch hitter—that is, taking a hitter out of the lineup and substituting another player whose likelihood for driving the ball for a hit or a fly to the deep…

human skeleton: Development of cranial bones: …different types of developmental origin—the cartilaginous, or substitution, bones, which replace cartilages preformed in the general shape of the bone; and membrane bones, which are laid down within layers of connective tissue. For the most part, the substitution bones form the floor of the cranium, while membrane bones form the…

substitution cipher, data encryption scheme in which units of the plaintext (generally single letters or pairs of letters of ordinary text) are replaced with other symbols or groups of symbols. The ciphertext symbols do not have to be the same as the plaintext characters in a substitution cipher,

utility and value: Income and substitution effects: …price change is called the substitution effect. The division can be carried out graphically as follows: let the price of X increase so that the price line in Figure 7 moves from PP′ to PR′, and assume an imaginary intermediate price line, LL′, with the slope of PR′ but tangent…

point mutation, change within a gene in which one base pair in the DNA sequence is altered. Point mutations are frequently the result of mistakes made during DNA replication, although modification of DNA, such as through exposure to X-rays or to ultraviolet radiation, also can induce point

formal logic: Logical manipulations in LPC: Because the rule of substitution of equivalents can be shown to hold in LPC, it follows that (∃x) may be replaced anywhere in a wff by ∼(∀x)∼, or (∀x) by ∼(∃x)∼, and the resulting wff will be equivalent to the original. Similarly, because the law of double…

pseudomorph: Pseudomorphs are formed by substitution, deposition, or alteration. In the formation of a pseudomorph by substitution, the original substance has been gradually removed and simultaneously replaced by another. A common example of this is petrified wood, in which all the cellulose fibres have been replaced by silica, even those…

substitution reaction, any of a class of chemical reactions in which an atom, ion, or group of atoms or ions in a molecule is replaced by another atom, ion, or group. An example is the reaction in which the chlorine atom in the chloromethane molecule is displaced by the hydroxide ion, forming

drug abuse: Methadone is often used in substitution therapy as a less-addictive opiate that, theoretically at least, can be used to wean the user off heroin and eventually off opiates altogether.

balance: …than the required precision, the substitution method of weighing may be used. In this method, counterpoise weights are added to one pan to balance the unknown load on the other. Then, known weights are substituted for the unknown load. This method requires only that the two arms of the beam…

formal logic: Axiomatization of LPC: Rules of uniform substitution for predicate calculi, though formulable, are mostly very complicated, and, to avoid the necessity for these rules, axioms for these systems are therefore usually given by axiom schemata in the sense explained earlier (see above Axiomatization of PC). Given the formation…

formal logic: Axiomatization of LPC: By an LPC substitution-instance of a wff of PC is meant any result of uniformly replacing every propositional variable in that wff by a wff of LPC. Thus, one LPC substitution-instance of (p ⊃ ∼q) ⊃ (q ⊃ ∼p) is [ϕxy ⊃ ∼(∀x)ψx] ⊃ [(∀x)ψx ⊃ ∼ϕxy]. Axiom…

foundations of mathematics: Boolean local topoi: In particular, quantifiers admit a substitutional interpretation, a desirable property that has been discussed by philosophers (among them, Russell and the American logician Saul Kripke [born 1940])—to wit: if an existential statement is true, then it can be witnessed by a term of appropriate type in the language; and a…

metallurgy: Increasing strength: …case they are known as substitutional elements), or, if they are appreciably smaller than the matrix atoms, they may take up places between regular sites (where they are called interstitial elements).

organohalogen compound: Nomenclature: …used when naming organohalogen compounds: substitutive and functional class. In substitutive nomenclature the prefix fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, or iodo- is added to the name of the hydrocarbon framework along with a number (called a locant) identifying the carbon to which the halogen is attached. Substituents, including the halogen, are listed…

geomagnetic field: Expansion phase: The substorm-wedge current system causes sudden changes in the magnetic field at Earth’s surface during substorms. These changes induce very strong localized electric fields. These transient electric fields energize particles to high energy and propel them earthward. Loss of these particles to the atmosphere causes the…

electronic substrate and package ceramics: …materials that can serve as substrates (that is, the bases on which the microscopic electronic components and their connections are built) and packages (that is, the structures that seal a circuit from the environment and make it a single, compact unit). The insulating properties of ceramics are well known, and…

acid–base reaction: Acid–base catalysis: …the reacting substance, termed the substrate, with the catalyst being regenerated at a later stage of the reaction. Moreover, knowledge of reaction mechanisms is now sufficient to suggest detailed sequences of reactions for many acid- or base-catalysis reactions, most of these sequences being at least plausible and in many instances…

metabolism: Substrate-level phosphorylation: In substrate-level phosphorylation a phosphoryl group is transferred from an energy-rich donor (e.g., 1,3-diphosphoglycerate) to ADP to yield a molecule of ATP. This type of ATP synthesis (reactions [7], [10], and [43]) does not require molecular oxygen (O2), although it is frequently, but…

creole languages: Theories of creolization: …structural development of creole vernaculars—the substrate, superstrate, and universalist hypotheses. In this context, substrate signifies non-European languages, and superstrate signifies European languages. According to substratists, creoles were formed by the languages previously spoken by Africans enslaved in the Americas and the Indian Ocean, which imposed their structural features upon the…

foundations of mathematics: Other logics: …important have been various so-called substructural logics in which the usual properties of the deduction symbol are weakened: relevance logic is studied by philosophers, linear logic by computer scientists, and a noncommutative version of the latter by linguists.

soil: Water runoff: Subsurface runoff cannot easily penetrate the clay layer and flows laterally along the horizon as it moves toward the stream system. This type of runoff is slower than its erosive counterpart over the land surface and leads to water saturation of the upper part of…

horticulture: Water management: Subirrigation is the distribution of water to soil below the surface; it provides moisture to crops by upward capillary action. Trickle irrigation involves the slow release of water to each plant through small plastic tubes. This technique is adapted both to field and to greenhouse…

hydrosphere: Groundwaters and river runoff: The conditions for subsurface storm flow are quite restrictive. The mechanism is most likely to be operative on steep, humid, forested hillslopes with very permeable surface soils.

agricultural technology: Mulch tillage: Mulch tillage has been mentioned already; in this system, crop residues are left on the surface, and subsurface tillage leaves them relatively undisturbed. In dryland areas, a maximum amount of mulch is left on the surface; in more humid regions, however, some of…

groundwater, water that occurs below the surface of Earth, where it occupies all or part of the void spaces in soils or geologic strata. It is also called subsurface water to distinguish it from surface water, which is found in large bodies like the oceans or lakes or which flows overland in

Johann Joachim Becher: …substances were set forth in Subterranean Physics (1669). At Munich he suggested that the elector of Bavaria establish South American colonies and a cloth-trade monopoly, but angry merchants forced him to flee. At Vienna he proposed a Rhine–Danube canal and was also employed in experiments to transmute Danube sand into…

termite: Importance: Subterranean termites are dependent on contact with soil moisture and normally reach the wood in man-made structures through the foundations. The most common traditional control used around a structure is to flood a shallow trench with an insecticide and cover it with soil. Insecticides also…

Jack Kerouac: Sketching, poetry, and Buddhism: …fall of 1953 he finished The Subterraneans (it would be published in 1958). Fed up with the world after the failed love affair upon which the book was based, he read Henry David Thoreau and fantasized a life outside civilization. He immersed himself in the study of Zen, and he…

malaria: The course of the disease: Victims of this “malignant tertian” form of the disease may deteriorate rapidly from mild symptoms to coma and death unless they are diagnosed and treated promptly and properly. The greater virulence of P. falciparum is associated with its tendency to infect a large proportion of the red blood…

basal ganglia: Anatomy and connections: In the motor circuit the subthalamic nucleus serves as an input nucleus, receiving information from the cortex and thalamus and influencing the conventional route of basal ganglia outflow from the striatum to the output nuclei of the thalamus. The output nuclei of the basal ganglia are the globus pallidus internus…

human nervous system: Subthalamus: The subthalamus is represented mainly by the subthalamic nucleus, a lens-shaped structure lying behind and to the sides of the hypothalamus and on the dorsal surface of the internal capsule. The subthalamic region is traversed by fibers related to the globus pallidus. Discrete lesions…

Mesoamerican Indian languages: The classification and status of Mesoamerican languages: Eastern Otomanguean

Frances Arnold: She altered the enyzme subtilisin E, which breaks down the protein casein, so it would work in the solvent dimethylformamide (DMF) instead of in the watery environment of a cell. She introduced many random mutations into the genetic code of bacteria that made subtilisin E, and she introduced her

subtitle, a secondary or explanatory title. Such titles can explain the form of the work, as in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s Remorse: A Tragedy, in Five Acts; they can give an idea of the theme or contents of the book, as in George Eliot’s Middlemarch: A Study of Provincial Life; or they can simply be

Kara Walker: The work, A Subtlety, or the Marvelous Sugar Baby, featured a colossal 35-foot- (10.7-metre-) tall sugar-coated polystyrene female sphinx and a cortege of molasses-coloured candy figurine boys hauling baskets and bananas. With a kerchief knotted on her head and exaggerated nose and lips, the sphinx recalled the…

gastrectomy: In a more extensive procedure, subtotal gastrectomy, as much as three-quarters of the stomach is removed, including all of the antrum. The remaining stomach may then be reattached directly to the duodenum or to the jejunum, a more distal part of the intestine beyond the usual site of ulceration.

arithmetic: Integers: Subtraction has not been introduced for the simple reason that it can be defined as the inverse of addition. Thus, the difference a − b of two numbers a and b is defined as a solution x of the equation b + x = a.…

colour: The laws of colour mixture: Subtractive colour mixing involves the absorption and selective transmission or reflection of light. It occurs when colorants (such as pigments or dyes) are mixed or when several coloured filters are inserted into a single beam of white light. For example, if a projector is fitted…

numerals and numeral systems: Roman numerals: The subtractive principle is seen in Hebrew number names, as well as in the occasional use of IV for 4 and IX for 9 in Roman inscriptions. The Romans also used unus de viginti (“one from twenty”) for 19 and duo de viginti (“two from twenty”)…

colour: The laws of colour mixture: Subtractive colour mixing involves the absorption and selective transmission or reflection of light. It occurs when colorants (such as pigments or dyes) are mixed or when several coloured filters are inserted into a single beam of white light. For example, if a projector is fitted…

music synthesizer: The aforementioned synthesizers used subtractive synthesis—removing unwanted components from a signal containing a fundamental tone and all related overtones (sawtooth-wave signals). The harmonic-tone generator developed by James Beauchamp at the University of Illinois, in contrast, used additive synthesis—building tones from signals for pure tones, i.e., without overtones (sine-wave signals)—and…

subtropical high, one of several regions of semipermanent high atmospheric pressure located over the oceans between 20° and 40° of latitude in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres of the Earth. These highs are associated with the subsidence of the Hadley cell and move several degrees of

Antarctica: The surrounding seas: …latitude lying south of the Subtropical Convergence (at about 40° S) and north of the Antarctic Convergence (between about 50° and 60° S). The Subtropical Convergence generally defines the northern limits of a water mass having so many unique physical and biological characteristics that it is often given a separate…

deforestation: History: …the remainder was once moist subtropical or tropical forest or, in eastern North America, western Europe, and eastern China, temperate forest.

subtropical gyre, an area of anticyclonic ocean circulation that sits beneath a region of subtropical high pressure. The movement of ocean water within the Ekman layer of these gyres forces surface water to sink, giving rise to the subtropical convergence near 20°–30° latitude. The centres of

subtropical high, one of several regions of semipermanent high atmospheric pressure located over the oceans between 20° and 40° of latitude in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres of the Earth. These highs are associated with the subsidence of the Hadley cell and move several degrees of

subtropical jet stream, a belt of strong upper-level winds lying above regions of subtropical high pressure. Unlike the polar front jet stream, it travels in lower latitudes and at slightly higher elevations, owing to the increase in height of the tropopause at lower latitudes. The associated

subtropical high, one of several regions of semipermanent high atmospheric pressure located over the oceans between 20° and 40° of latitude in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres of the Earth. These highs are associated with the subsidence of the Hadley cell and move several degrees of

Subud, religious movement, based on spontaneous and ecstatic exercises, founded by an Indonesian, Muḥammad Subuh, called Bapak. A student of Ṣūfism (Islāmic mysticism) as a youth, Bapak had a powerful mystical experience in 1925, and in 1933 he claimed that the mission to found the Subud movement

Subud: …an Indonesian, Muḥammad Subuh, called Bapak. A student of Ṣūfism (Islāmic mysticism) as a youth, Bapak had a powerful mystical experience in 1925, and in 1933 he claimed that the mission to found the Subud movement was revealed to him. The movement was restricted to Indonesia until the 1950s, when…

integument: Claws, nails, and hooves: …covering a ventral plate (subunguis), the whole capping the bony tip of a digit. Nails—found only in mammals—consist of a broad and flattened unguis, with the subunguis reduced to a vestige under the outer tip. Hooves, the characteristic feature of the hoofed mammals, or ungulates, are exaggerated nails, with…

vaccine: Vaccine types: …type of vaccine is a subunit vaccine, which is made from proteins found on the surface of infectious agents. Some vaccines for influenza and hepatitis B are of subunit vaccines. Conjugate vaccines utilize carrier proteins, which bind to weakened polysaccharide antigens, thereby producing a combination that is a stronger threat,…

United States: New factors in municipal development: Many suburbs and subdivisions arose with single-family homes on lots larger than had been possible for the ordinary householder in the city. These communities were almost totally dependent on the highway for the flow of commuters, goods, and services, and many were located in splendid isolation,…

bus: Modern buses: The suburban bus is designed for short intercity runs and has high-back seats, luggage compartments and racks, and a single, front entrance.

Hulk Hogan: Hulkamania: …in the poorly received comedies Suburban Commando (1991), Mr. Nanny (1993), and Santa with Muscles (1996).

John Claudius Loudon: …and published his widely read The Suburban Gardener and Villa Companion, which set the style for the smaller gardens kept by England’s expanding middle class.

urban sprawl, the rapid expansion of the geographic extent of cities and towns, often characterized by low-density residential housing, single-use zoning, and increased reliance on the private automobile for transportation. Urban sprawl is caused in part by the need to accommodate a rising urban

modernization: New patterns of urban life: …practical saturation point, leads to suburbanization, the desire to live in neighbourhoods with green spaces and at least a breath of country air. As the suburbs fill up, the more prosperous citizens become exurban: they colonize the villages and small towns of the countryside within commuting distance of their work…

Coen brothers: …Clooney for the dark comedy Suburbicon (2017).

Randolph Stow: His final novel, The Suburbs of Hell (1984), deals with murder in a small English town.

Arcade Fire: Arcade Fire’s third album, The Suburbs (2010), departed from the elegiac sound of its predecessor, incorporating synthesizers and New Wave dance beats into a meditation on the cyclical nature of life. Despite the fact that the band continued to lack the marketing support of a major record label, the…

Anastasius IV was the pope from July 1153 to December 1154. As cardinal bishop of Sabina, he had staunchly supported Pope Innocent II in 1130, serving as his vicar in Rome during the contest with the antipope Anacletus II. Crowned in the Lateran Palace in Rome, the old pope spent lavishly for its

Ghana: Series of coups: In July 1972 a retroactive Subversion Decree was enacted under which military courts were empowered to impose the death penalty for offenses such as subversive political activity, robbery, theft, and damaging public property, and, from 1973, for the spreading of rumors and profiteering. The military regime was clearly failing to…

Elizabeth Gurley Flynn: …a provision of the 1950 Subversive Activities Control Act that denied the issuance of passports to communists, was won in 1964, and she promptly secured a passport in order to visit the Soviet Union. When she died that year, she was given a state funeral in Red Square.

Taviani brothers: I sovversivi (1967; The Subversives) mixes documentary footage with a fictional story about the death of a leader and the end of an era for the Italian Left.

igneous rock: Classification of volcanic and hypabyssal rocks: Owing to the aphanitic texture of volcanic and hypabyssal rocks, their modes cannot be readily determined; consequently, a chemical classification is widely accepted and employed by most petrologists. One popular scheme is based on the use of both chemical components and normative mineralogy.…

Subway is a restaurant chain specializing in made-to-order “submarine” sandwiches—split Italian rolls filled with your choice of sliced meats, cheeses, vegetables, and condiments. The sandwich maker is based in Milford, Connecticut, and serves more than 37,000 franchise locations in nearly 100

subway, underground railway system used to transport large numbers of passengers within urban and suburban areas. Subways are usually built under city streets for ease of construction, but they may take shortcuts and sometimes must pass under rivers. Outlying sections of a system usually emerge

loudspeaker: …systems there are separate “subwoofers” and “supertweeters” to reproduce the extremities of the audible spectrum.

Martin Amis: …career included Dead Babies (1974), Success (1978), Other People (1981), The Information (1995), and Night Train (1997).

inheritance, the devolution of property on an heir or heirs upon the death of the owner. The term inheritance also designates the property itself. In modern society, the process is regulated in minute detail by law. In the civil law of the continental European pattern, the pertinent branch is

ecological succession, the process by which the structure of a biological community evolves over time. Two different types of succession—primary and secondary—have been distinguished. Primary succession occurs in essentially lifeless areas—regions in which the soil is incapable of sustaining life

ancient Iran: The Middle Elamite period: …period the old system of succession to, and distribution of, power appears to have broken down. Increasingly, son succeeded father, and less is heard of divided authority within a federated system. This probably reflects an effort to increase the central authority at Susa in order to conduct effective military campaigns…

Succession, American comedy-drama television series created by British writer and producer Jesse Armstrong that aired on HBO from 2018 to 2023. The series focuses on the Roy family, whose aging patriarch, Logan Roy, owns the entertainment and media conglomerate Waystar Royco, one of the last

vegetable farming: Soil preparation and management: It differs from succession cropping in that rotation cropping covers a period of two, three, or more years, while in succession cropping two or more crops are grown on the same land in one year. In many regions vegetable crops are grown in rotation with other farm crops.…

biblical literature: The expansion of the Davidic Empire: …1 and 2, the so-called Succession History, or the Family History of David, which, according to many scholars, forms the oldest section of historiography in Scripture—contains accounts of the domestic problems of David’s reign. Though he showed generosity to Mephibosheth, the sole surviving son of the house of Saul, he…

Saint John Fisher: In March 1534 the Act of Succession declared Henry’s marriage to Catherine void and that with Anne Boleyn valid. On the following April 13 Fisher and Sir Thomas More jointly refused to take the oath required by the Act on the grounds that, while willing to accept the succession…

probate, in Anglo-American law, the judicial proceedings by which it is determined whether or not a paper purporting to be the last will of a deceased person is the legally valid last will. What appears to be a valid will may not be so: it may have been forged, not executed in the way required by

Salic Law of Succession, the rule by which, in certain sovereign dynasties, persons descended from a previous sovereign only through a woman were excluded from succession to the throne. Gradually formulated in France, the rule takes its name from the code of the Salian Franks, the Lex Salica (Salic

Charles-Émile Picard: Picard successfully revived the method of successive approximations to prove the existence of solutions to differential equations. He also created a theory of linear differential equations, analogous to the Galois theory of algebraic equations. His studies of harmonic vibrations, coupled with the contributions of Hermann Schwarz of Germany and…

painting: Color: Chevreul’s second law, of successive contrast, referred to the optical sensation that a complementary color halo appears gradually to surround an intense hue. This complementary glow is superimposed on surrounding weaker colors, a gray becoming greenish when juxtaposed with red, reddish in close relationship with green, yellowish against violet,…

metabolism: Regeneration of oxaloacetate: …FAD; the reaction, catalyzed by succinate dehydrogenase [44], results in the formation of fumarate and reduced FAD.