museum: Natural history and natural science museums: Museums of natural history and natural science are concerned with the natural world; their collections may contain specimens of birds, mammals, insects, plants, rocks, minerals, and fossils. These museums have their origins in the cabinets of curiosities built up…

Natural History Museum, British natural science museum that has national and international responsibilities for taxonomic and associated research based on its outstanding collection of specimens and its extensive libraries. It is located near the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Science Museum in

Sèvres porcelain: …naturalistic birds from the famous Natural History of Birds (1771) of Georges-Louis-Leclerc Buffon. Sèvres porcelain went through the gamut of 18th-century styles, including those associated with the reign of Louis XVI (1774–92).

study of religion: The late 17th and 18th centuries: …gave another account in his Natural History of Religion, which reflected the growing rationalism of the epoch. For Hume, original polytheism was the result of a naïve anthropomorphism (conceiving the divine in human form) in the assignment of causes to natural events. The intensification of propitiatory and other forms of…

Eduardo Kac: …centre of a new installation, Natural History of the Enigma (2009).

Museum of Science, major American museum of science and technology, founded in 1830 in Boston, Massachusetts, as the Boston Society of Natural History. The society moved to permanent quarters in 1864, when it became known as the New England Museum of Natural History. Having outgrown its original

wind instrument: Horns: …as the trumpet is the natural horn, which was derived from an animal horn or a tusk. With their multifarious species of horned animals, the African countries achieved a rich variety of shapes, sizes, and pitches in their musical horns. Although the world’s earliest and most enduring horns were end-blown,…

immune system: Nonspecific, innate immunity: Most microorganisms encountered in daily life are repelled before they cause detectable signs and symptoms of disease. These potential pathogens, which include viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, and worms, are quite diverse, and therefore a nonspecific defense system that

administrative law: Administrative procedure: …common-law systems, the doctrine of natural justice influences administrative procedure in two ways: (1) that a person may not be judge of his own cause, and (2) that a person shall not be dealt with to his material disadvantage, whether of person or property, or removed from or disqualified for…

immune system: Activation of killer cells: …either cytotoxic T cells or natural killer cells, have receptors that bind to the tail portion of the IgG antibody molecule (the part that does not bind to antigen). Once bound, killer cells insert a protein called perforin into the target cell, causing it to swell and burst. Killer cells…

artificial intelligence: Language: …different from what is called natural meaning, exemplified in statements such as “Those clouds mean rain” and “The fall in pressure means the valve is malfunctioning.”

natural language processing (NLP), in computer science, the use of operations, systems, and technologies that allow computers to process and respond to written and spoken language in a way that mirrors human ability. To do this, natural language processing (NLP) models must use computational

natural law, in philosophy, system of right or justice held to be common to all humans and derived from nature rather than from the rules of society, or positive law. There have been several disagreements over the meaning of natural law and its relation to positive law. Aristotle (384–322 bce) held

ethics: Moral realism: One attempt, Natural Law and Natural Rights (1980), by the legal philosopher John Finnis, was a modern explication of the concept of natural law in terms of a theory of supposedly natural human goods. Although the book was acclaimed by Roman Catholic moral theologians and philosophers, natural…

natural logarithm (ln), logarithm with base e = 2.718281828…. That is, ln (ex) = x, where ex is the exponential function. The natural logarithm function is defined by ln x = 1 x dt t for x > 0; therefore the derivative of the natural logarithm is d dx ln x = 1 x . The natural logarithm is one of

natural gas, colourless highly flammable gaseous hydrocarbon consisting primarily of methane and ethane. It is a type of petroleum that commonly occurs in association with crude oil. A natural resource and fossil fuel, natural gas is used for electricity generation, heating, and cooking and as a

Andrew Weil: …drugs on the mind in The Natural Mind: A New Way of Looking at Drugs and the Higher Consciousness (1972). In this book Weil suggested that altered states of consciousness were innate to the human nervous system and that drugs or other stimuli merely catalyzed them. In a subsequent work,…

natural number, any number in the set of positive integers {1, 2, 3…} and sometimes zero. The term natural likely refers to humanity’s innate understanding and use of positive discrete values. Sometimes called “counting numbers,” natural numbers predate recorded history, as it is believed that

human composting, type of burial rite in which human remains are treated so as to turn into soil or compost. This process usually involves covering the body with plant matter in a special chamber to create an environment in which the corpse is decomposed to base organic soil over a period of 60 to

Jonathan Edwards: Early life and ministry: …of materialism and atheism (“Natural Philosophy”). Throughout his life he habitually studied with pen in hand, recording his thoughts in numerous hand-sewn notebooks; one of these, his “Catalogue” of books, demonstrates the wide variety of his interests.

philosophy of science: From natural philosophy to theories of method: The history of philosophy is intertwined with the history of the natural sciences. Long before the 19th century, when the term science began to be used with its modern meaning, those who are now counted…

Seneca: Philosophical works and tragedies: …natural science, Naturales quaestiones (Natural Questions), where lofty generalities on the investigation of nature are offset by a jejune exposition of the facts. Of the Consolationes, Ad Marciam (To Marcia) consoles a lady on the loss of a son; Ad Helviam matrem (To Mother Helvia), Seneca’s mother on his…

geographic range, in ecology, the collective area in which all members of a particular species are found during their lifetime. The term geographic range has often referred to the natural extent of a species’ distribution; however, it also includes areas where a species was introduced by human

music recording: The role of the producer: …criterion in separating the “natural” or “re-creative” from the “creative” technique of large-scale classical recordings. In a natural setup, microphones are placed in the optimum positions in the hall—often directly over the conductor—in order to re-create the concert-hall or opera-house effect. In the natural arrangement, the conductor is responsible…

rock: Types of remanent magnetization: NRM (natural remanent magnetization) is the magnetization detected in a geologic in situ condition. The NRM of a substance may, of course, be a combination of any of the other remanent magnetizations described here.

resin: …of the physical properties of natural resins but are different chemically. Synthetic resins are not clearly differentiated from plastics.

natural resource, any biological, mineral, or aesthetic asset afforded by nature without human intervention that can be used for some form of benefit, whether material (economic) or immaterial. What is considered a “resource” (or, for that matter, “natural”) has varied over time and from one

natural resource management, ways in which societies manage the supply of or access to the natural resources upon which they rely for their survival and development. Insofar as humans are fundamentally dependent on natural resources, ensuring the ongoing access to or a steady provision of natural

natural resources law, complex body of national and local laws, having both statutory and common-law components, that regulate the use and protection of natural resources. Even when resources extend across national boundaries, or when resource exploitation (e.g., depleting a freshwater lake for

conservation, study of the loss of Earth’s biological diversity and the ways this loss can be prevented. Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the variety of life either in a particular place or on the entire planet Earth, including its ecosystems, species, populations, and genes. Conservation

civil rights: …such as human rights or natural rights—understood as rights belonging to all people by virtue of their humanity—, civil rights must be given and guaranteed by the power of the state. Therefore, they vary greatly over time, culture, and form of government and tend to follow societal trends that condone…

elastomer: Polymers and elasticity: …common elastomers are cis-polyisoprene (natural rubber, NR), cis-polybutadiene (butadiene rubber, BR), styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), and ethylene-propylene monomer (EPM). SBR is a mixed polymer, or copolymer, consisting of two different monomer units, styrene and butadiene, arranged randomly along the molecular chain. (The structure of SBR is illustrated in the figure.)…

museum: Natural history and natural science museums: Museums of natural history and natural science are concerned with the natural world; their collections may contain specimens of birds, mammals, insects, plants, rocks, minerals, and fossils. These museums have their origins in the cabinets of curiosities built up by prominent individuals…

Ruth Patrick: …1945, she volunteered at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. She began her tenure as a researcher but became the associate curator of microscopy in 1939. In 1937 she began to consolidate the academy’s diatom collection, augmenting it by collecting species in the field and by acquiring species from…

natural selection, process that results in the adaptation of an organism to its environment by means of selectively reproducing changes in its genotype, or genetic constitution. A brief treatment of natural selection follows. For full treatment, see evolution: The concept of natural selection. In

Arkansas, constituent state of the United States of America. Arkansas ranks 29th among the 50 states in total area, but, except for Louisiana and Hawaii, it is the smallest state west of the Mississippi River. Its neighbors are Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana

English garden, type of garden that developed in 18th-century England, originating as a revolt against the architectural garden, which relied on rectilinear patterns, sculpture, and the unnatural shaping of trees. The revolutionary character of the English garden lay in the fact that, whereas

M.H. Abrams: Natural Supernaturalism (1971) explores a broader reach of the Romantic sensibility, including its religious implications and its influence on modern literature. Further critical essays by Abrams on Romantic topics were collected in The Correspondent Breeze (1984).

taxonomy: From the Greeks to the Renaissance: …described a large number of natural groups, and, although he ranked them from simple to complex, his order was not an evolutionary one. He was far ahead of his time, however, in separating invertebrate animals into different groups and was aware that whales, dolphins, and porpoises had mammalian characters (that…

organization theory: Key questions, units of analysis, and debates: The natural system perspective advances the idea that informal and interpersonal structures within an organization are more important than formal structures. People within an organization have multiple interests, and consensus-building or conflictual processes drive organizational action. Last, the open-system perspective argues that one cannot look at…

Christianity: Christian philosophy as natural theology: Natural theology is generally characterized as the attempt to establish religious truths by rational argument and without reliance upon alleged revelations. It has focused traditionally on the topics of the existence of God and the immortality of the soul.

Emil Brunner: …Barth”; published in 1946 as Natural Theology), Brunner broke with Karl Barth’s theology by asserting that humanity has borne the “image of God” since Creation and has never wholly lost it, a view that provoked Barth’s vigorous disagreement.

William Paley: …until the 20th century; and Natural Theology (1802), based on John Ray’s Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation (1691). In Natural Theology, Paley used the analogy of the watch: both the world and the watch presuppose a maker. The book strongly influenced Charles Darwin.

Michel de Montaigne: Life: …French translation of the 15th-century Natural Theology by the Spanish monk Raymond Sebond. He had undertaken the task at the request of his father, who, however, died in 1568, before its publication, leaving to his oldest son the title and the domain of Montaigne.

trumpet: Later forms included the natural trumpet of the 16th–18th centuries and, following the invention of valves about 1815, the modern valve trumpet. The valve trumpet, ordinarily built in B♭, maintains the traditional trumpet bore, cylindrical with a terminal bell flare, though usually the bore tapers toward the mouthpiece to…

vibration: Free vibrations occur when the system is disturbed momentarily and then allowed to move without restraint. A classic example is provided by a weight suspended from a spring. In equilibrium, the system has minimum energy and the weight is at rest. If the weight is…

3-D: The first 3-D film in Natural Vision was Bwana Devil (1952), which was followed by several hastily shot action films. It is generally believed that the popularity of 3-D in the United States subsided after about a year because of the low quality of the films presented. Filmmakers in Italy,…

contour drawing: …popularized by Kimon Nicolaïdes in The Natural Way to Draw (1941).

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft: …are determined by Wesenwille (natural will)—i.e., natural and spontaneously arising emotions and expressions of sentiment.

baseball: Baseball and the arts: …saw accomplished films such as The Natural (1984); the ribald Bull Durham (1988); Eight Men Out (1988), based on Eliot Asinof’s book on the Black Sox scandal; Field of Dreams (1989), the adaptation of Kinsella’s Shoeless Joe; and A League of Their Own (1992), the story of the All-American Girls…

The Natural, first novel by Bernard Malamud, published in 1952. The story of gifted athlete Roy Hobbs and his talismanic bat “Wonderboy” is counted among the finest baseball novels. It is at heart a fable that loosely follows the Holy Grail myth. Hobbs’s promising baseball career is cut short when

submarine: Reactors: …of marine nuclear reactor: pressurized-water, natural-circulation, and liquid-metal.

riparian right: …States was premised on the natural-flow doctrine, pursuant to which a riparian owner has the right to a natural-water flow of undiminished quantity and unimpaired quality. By the mid-19th century, however, virtually all American states had repudiated the natural-flow doctrine in favour of a second doctrine, that of “reasonable use.”…

Seneca: Philosophical works and tragedies: …natural science, Naturales quaestiones (Natural Questions), where lofty generalities on the investigation of nature are offset by a jejune exposition of the facts. Of the Consolationes, Ad Marciam (To Marcia) consoles a lady on the loss of a son; Ad Helviam matrem (To Mother Helvia), Seneca’s mother on his…

art market: Northern Europe and the Austrian Empire: …were known as Kunstkammern or Wunderkammern, from Kunst (“man-made objects”), Wunder (“natural curiosities”), and Kammern (“chambers, rooms”).

Natural History, encyclopaedic scientific work of dubious accuracy by Pliny the Elder, completed in 77 ce as Naturae historiae and conventionally known as Naturalis historia. Although Pliny did not distinguish between fact, opinion, and speculation in his 37-volume treatise, he can be credited with

naturalism, in literature and the visual arts, late 19th- and early 20th-century movement that was inspired by adaptation of the principles and methods of natural science, especially the Darwinian view of nature, to literature and art. In literature it extended the tradition of realism, aiming at

naturalism, in philosophy, a theory that relates scientific method to philosophy by affirming that all beings and events in the universe (whatever their inherent character may be) are natural. Consequently, all knowledge of the universe falls within the pale of scientific investigation. Although

Rudolf Otto: Scholarly pursuits: …Naturalistische und religiöse Weltansicht (1904; Naturalism and Religion, 1907), in which he contrasted the naturalistic and the religious ways of interpreting the world, first indicating their antitheses and then raising the question of whether the contradictions can be or should be reconciled.

Amazon River: Early European exploration: His book The Naturalist on the River Amazons, originally published in two volumes in 1863, is still regarded as one of the great classics on the Amazon River. An official expedition was sent from the United States to Amazonia in the mid-19th century; in 1854 in Washington,…

Tassili-n-Ajjer: …school of art, the “Naturalistic Bubaline,” which was approximately contemporary with the Round Head paintings. These artists used a remarkably naturalistic style to depict domestic cattle and wild animals, including the now-extinct giant buffalo.

naturalistic fallacy, Fallacy of treating the term “good” (or any equivalent term) as if it were the name of a natural property. In 1903 G.E. Moore presented in Principia Ethica his “open-question argument” against what he called the naturalistic fallacy, with the aim of proving that “good” is the

Peter Henry Emerson: In his handbook Naturalistic Photography (1889), he outlined a system of aesthetics. He decreed that a photograph should be direct and simple and show real people in their own environment, not costumed models posed before fake backdrops or other such predetermined formulas.

Rudolf Otto: Scholarly pursuits: …Naturalistische und religiöse Weltansicht (1904; Naturalism and Religion, 1907), in which he contrasted the naturalistic and the religious ways of interpreting the world, first indicating their antitheses and then raising the question of whether the contradictions can be or should be reconciled.

naturalization, the act of investing an alien with the status of a national in a given state; it may be accomplished as the result of voluntary application, special legislative direction, marriage to a citizen, or parental action. Naturalization may also occur when one’s home territory is annexed

Act of Settlement: ” By the Naturalization Act of 1870 this clause was virtually repealed for all persons who obtain a certificate of naturalization.

Western philosophy: Naturalized epistemology: The philosophical psychology and philosophy of mind developed since the 1950s by the American philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000), known generally as naturalized epistemology, was influenced both by Russell’s work in logic and by logical positivism. Quine’s philosophy forms a comprehensive system…

Sophus Claussen: …myths of human existence in Naturbørn (1887; “Children of Nature”) and Pilefløjter (1899; “Willow Pipes”) remains in the Danish tradition. Claussen also published several travel books and lyrical prose tales of small-town life in Denmark. He translated some of his favourite poets, including Percy Bysshe Shelley, Heinrich Heine, and Charles…

Deepwater Horizon oil spill: Aftermath and impact: …study published in the journal Nature in 2020 found that fish in the Gulf of Mexico continued to show evidence of contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

Japanese architecture: …Japan—is an understanding of the natural world as a source of spiritual insight and an instructive mirror of human emotion.

Henry Medwall: A morality play, Nature, a good example of the allegorical type of early drama, displays Medwall’s talent for realistic dialogue and his skill as a versifier. Fulgens and Lucrece is a debate on the origins of true nobility, enlivened by the interruptions of household servants.

Ralph Waldo Emerson: Mature life and works: …in man’s spiritual relation to nature. In England he paid memorable visits to Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth, and Thomas Carlyle. At home once more in 1833, he began to write Nature and established himself as a popular and influential lecturer. By 1834 he had found a permanent dwelling place…

Reinhold Niebuhr: Pastor and theologian: >The Nature and Destiny of Man, 2 vol. (1941–43), was planned by him as a synthesis both of the insights of the Reformation and of the Renaissance, with its hopefulness about cultural achievements.

Erwin Schrödinger: …and philosophy, summarized in his Nature and the Greeks (1954), gave him both an admiration for the Greek invention of the scientific view of the world and a skepticism toward the relevance of science as a unique tool with which to unravel the ultimate mysteries of human existence. Schrödinger’s own…

Horace Bushnell: In Nature and the Supernatural (1858) he viewed the twin elements of the title as constituting the one “system of God” and sought to defend from skeptical attack the Christian position on sin, miracles, incarnation, revelation, and Christ’s divinity.

Nature Conservancy, nonprofit organization dedicated to environmental conservation and the preservation of biodiversity. It operates the largest private system of nature sanctuaries in the world. Founded in 1951 in Washington, D.C., it owns and manages more than 1,500 preserves throughout the

Ten Sleep: …entrance to the canyon is Nature Conservancy Ten Sleep Preserve (formerly the Girl Scouts National Center West), which harbours populations of mammals and more than 100 bird species. A conservation buffalo herd was begun at a nearby ranch in 1974. The village is a supply point for a livestock and…

conservation, study of the loss of Earth’s biological diversity and the ways this loss can be prevented. Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the variety of life either in a particular place or on the entire planet Earth, including its ecosystems, species, populations, and genes. Conservation

Bruce Nauman: …a 3-D video camera in Nature Morte (2020).

mysticism: Mysticism and reason: …Western rational mystics have contemplated nature—its forms, structures, laws, and quantities—as a means of participating in the divine intellect. While some rational mystics have regarded nature as a contemplative end in itself, for others the contemplation of nature is a source of insight regarding its creator. The most famous modern…

Queen Latifah: Her second album, Nature of a Sista (1991), however, failed to match the sales of her previous effort, and Tommy Boy did not re-sign her. After signing with Motown Records, she released Black Reign in 1993. The album was a critical and commercial success, and the single “U.N.I.T.Y.,”…

art criticism: Clement Greenberg: In his famous essay “Nature of Abstract Art” (1937), Meyer Schapiro critiques Barr, arguing that such a clearly defined “flowchart” view of formal development—seeing art as moving in one clear direction—assumes that artistic development has nothing to do with extra-artistic reality or, for that matter, as Schapiro emphasizes, the…

A.L. Kroeber: The Nature of Culture (1952) collected Kroeber’s essays published on such topics as cultural theory, kinship, social psychology, and psychoanalysis.

Moritz Hauptmann: …der Harmonik und Metrik (1853; The Nature of Harmony and Metric).

Joy Paul Guilford: …of intellect, was outlined in The Nature of Human Intelligence (1967).

analytic philosophy: Moore and Russell: …in a paper entitled “The Nature of Judgment” (1899), argued for a theory of truth that implies that the physical world does have the independent existence that it is naively supposed to have. Although the theory was soon abandoned, it represented British philosophy’s return to common sense.

Max Black: …interest in mathematics resulted in The Nature of Mathematics (1933), a study of the various historical conceptions of that field. Black was heavily influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, and his interest in that philosopher’s Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus bore fruit in the comprehensive and highly regarded study A Companion to Wittgenstein’s Tractatus (1964).…

Ruth Prawer Jhabvala: …also published as Amrita) and The Nature of Passion (1956), won much critical acclaim for their comic depiction of Indian society and manners. She was often compared to Jane Austen for her microscopic studies of a tightly conventional world. Her position as both insider and detached observer allowed her a…

gnosticism: Diversity of gnostic myths: …the Nag Hammadi library, the Nature of the Archons and On the Origin of the World, contain a figure named Sabaoth, one of the sons of Ialdabaoth, who is reminiscent of Justin’s Elohim. When Sabaoth realizes that there is a higher realm, he undergoes a kind of conversion, condemns Ialdabaoth,…

Linus Pauling: Elucidation of molecular structures: His book The Nature of the Chemical Bond, and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals (1939) provided a unified summary of his vision of structural chemistry.

Ronald Coase: …other published works include “The Nature of the Firm” (1937), his seminal paper in which he introduced the concept of transaction costs to explain the evolution of companies and industries; The Firm, the Market, and the Law (1988); and How China Became Capitalist (2012; with Ning Wang).

David Suzuki: …especially through his television series The Nature of Things with David Suzuki (1979– ), and for his efforts in environmental conservation.

Jonathan Edwards: Pastorate at Stockbridge: …God Created the World and The Nature of True Virtue (1765). God’s glory, not human happiness, is his end in creation; but this is because God in his all-sufficient fullness must communicate himself by the exercise of his attributes. God can be said to aim at the creature’s happiness, but…

classification of religions: Morphological: …Tiele’s views, develops out of nature religion,

nature reserve, area set aside for the purpose of preserving certain animals, plants, or both. A nature reserve differs from a national park usually in being smaller and having as its sole purpose the protection of nature. Endangered species are often kept in reserves, away from the hunters who

nature worship: Nature as a sacred totality: …to what are called “nature spirits,” which are the forces or personifications of the forces of nature. High gods exist, for example, in such indigenous religions on Africa’s west coast as that of the Dyola of Guinea. In such religions the human spiritual environment is functionally structured by means…

Anna Botsford Comstock: …remembered for her work in nature study.

heredity: Heredity and environment: A notion that was widespread among pioneer biologists in the 18th century was that the fetus, and hence the adult organism that develops from it, is preformed in the sex cells. Some early microscopists even imagined that they saw…

nature worship, system of religion based on the veneration of natural phenomena—for example, celestial objects such as the sun and moon and terrestrial objects such as water and fire. In the history of religions and cultures, nature worship as a definite and complex system of belief or as a

law of nature, in the philosophy of science, a stated regularity in the relations or order of phenomena in the world that holds, under a stipulated set of conditions, either universally or in a stated proportion of instances. (The notion is distinct from that of a natural law—i.e., a law of right