artesian well, well from which water flows under natural pressure without pumping. It is dug or drilled wherever a gently dipping, permeable rock layer (such as sandstone) receives water along its outcrop at a level higher than the level of the surface of the ground at the well site. At the outcrop

artesian well, well from which water flows under natural pressure without pumping. It is dug or drilled wherever a gently dipping, permeable rock layer (such as sandstone) receives water along its outcrop at a level higher than the level of the surface of the ground at the well site. At the outcrop

artemisinin: Artesunate is unique among the artemisinin-derived agents because it can be administered intravenously, enabling the drug to take immediate effect. As a result, artesunate is used in the treatment of cerebral malaria, which is an acute form of the disease characterized by the rapid spread…

Jacob van Artevelde was a Flemish leader who played a leading role in the preliminary phase of the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453). Governing Ghent with other “captains” from 1338, he aligned the Flemings with King Edward III of England and against both France and the Count of Flanders. He

Jacob van Artevelde was a Flemish leader who played a leading role in the preliminary phase of the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453). Governing Ghent with other “captains” from 1338, he aligned the Flemings with King Edward III of England and against both France and the Count of Flanders. He

Louis II: …Ghent reached its height under Philip van Artevelde in 1382. He defeated Louis, took Bruges, and was made regent of Flanders. But the triumph of the White Hoods, as the popular party was called, was of short duration. On Nov. 27, 1382, Artevelde suffered a crushing defeat from a large…

Michael Fried: …wrote for Art International and Artforum. At the latter magazine he published “Art and Objecthood” (1967), a controversial and influential attack on minimalist sculpture that revealed him to be a powerful champion of formalist art. Fried’s objection to what he saw as the theatricality of minimalist art was the emphasis…

The Artful Dodger, fictional character in Charles Dickens’s novel Oliver Twist (1837–39). The Artful Dodger is a precocious streetwise boy who introduces the protagonist Oliver to the thief Fagin and his gang of children, who work as thieves and

artha, (Sanskrit: “wealth,” or “property”), in Hinduism, the pursuit of wealth or material advantage, one of the four traditional aims in life. The sanction for artha rests on the assumption that—with the exclusion of the exceptional few who can proceed directly to the final aim of moksha, or

Leopold Hasner, Ritter von Artha was an economist, jurist, and politician who served as a liberal Austrian minister of education (1867–70) and briefly as prime minister (1870). Educated in philosophy and law at Prague and Vienna, Hasner in 1848 became editor of an official newspaper in Prague—the

Artha-shastra, singularly important Indian manual on the art of politics, attributed to Kautilya (also known as Chanakya), who reportedly was chief minister to the emperor Chandragupta (c. 300 bce), the founder of the Mauryan dynasty. Although it is unlikely that all of the text dates to such an

arthapatti, in Indian philosophy, the fifth of the five means of knowledge (pramana) by which one obtains accurate knowledge of the world. Arthapatti is knowledge arrived at through presumption or

fungus: Annotated classification: Order Arthoniales Forms lichens; produces asci that elongate to discharge spores; example genera include Arthonia, Dirina, and Roccella. Class Dothideomycetes Pathogenic, endophytic, or epiphytic on plants, saprotrophic in soil, parasitic on fungi and animals, or symbiotic with algae to form lichens; spores undergo ascolocular

fungus: Annotated classification: Class Arthoniomycetes Forms lichens; contains 1 order. Order Arthoniales Forms lichens; produces asci that elongate to discharge spores; example genera include Arthonia, Dirina, and Roccella. Class Dothideomycetes Pathogenic, endophytic, or

joint disease: Inflammatory joint diseases: types of arthritis: Arthralgias simply are pains in the joints; as ordinarily used, the word implies that there is no other accompanying evidence of arthritis. Rheumatism, which is not synonymous with these, does not necessarily imply an inflammatory state but refers to all manners of discomfort of the…

arthritis, inflammation of the joints and its effects. Arthritis is a general term, derived from the Greek words arthro-, meaning “joint,” and -itis, meaning “inflammation.” Arthritis can be a major cause of disability. In the United States, for example, data collected from 2007 to 2009 indicated

arthritis: Spondyloarthropathies: …though certain forms, such as arthritis mutilans, can be quite severe. Occasionally the onset of symptoms associated with psoriatic arthritis is acute, though more often it is insidious, initially presenting as oligoarthritis with enthesitis. Over time, arthritis begins to affect multiple joints (polyarthritis), especially the hands and feet, resulting in…

fungus: Predation: …rings of some species of Arthrobotrys, Dactylella, and Dactylaria—soil-inhabiting fungi easily grown under laboratory conditions. In the presence of nematodes, the mycelium produces large numbers of rings through which the average nematode is barely able to pass. When a nematode rubs the inner wall of a ring, which usually consists…

joint: Types of joints: Such fusion is called arthrodesis. All permanent and some transient joints permit movement. Movement of the latter may be temporary, as with the roof bones of an infant’s skull during birth, or long-term, as with the joints of the base of the skull during postnatal development.

plane joint, in anatomy, type of structure in the body formed between two bones in which the articular, or free, surfaces of the bones are flat or nearly flat, enabling the bones to slide over each other. Because the articular surfaces of the bones are free and move in a sliding motion, the plane

arthrodire, any member of an order of extinct, armoured, jawed fishes (placoderms) found in Devonian freshwater and marine deposits. (The Devonian period lasted from 416 million to 359 million years ago.) Early arthrodires, such as the genus Arctolepis, were well-armoured fishes with flattened

arthrodire, any member of an order of extinct, armoured, jawed fishes (placoderms) found in Devonian freshwater and marine deposits. (The Devonian period lasted from 416 million to 359 million years ago.) Early arthrodires, such as the genus Arctolepis, were well-armoured fishes with flattened

joint disease: Congenital and hereditary abnormalities: In arthrogryposis multiplex congenita (multiple congenital crooked joints), many joints are deformed at birth, particularly the hip. The deformities are the consequence of muscle weakness that in turn sometimes results from spinal cord disease. Clubfoot (talipes equinovarus) is a congenital deformity in which the foot is…

joint disease: Congenital and hereditary abnormalities: In arthrogryposis multiplex congenita (multiple congenital crooked joints), many joints are deformed at birth, particularly the hip. The deformities are the consequence of muscle weakness that in turn sometimes results from spinal cord disease. Clubfoot (talipes equinovarus) is a congenital deformity in which the foot is…

frog and toad: Annotated classification: Family Arthroleptidae No fossil record; 8 presacral vertebrae; vertebral column procoelous with Presacral VIII (biconcave); aquatic larvae or direct development; 7 genera, 74 species; adult size 1.5–13 cm (0.5–5 inches); 2 subfamilies: Arthroleptinae (Africa) and Astylosterninae (Africa). Family Dendrobatidae

frog and toad: Annotated classification: 5–5 inches); 2 subfamilies: Arthroleptinae (Africa) and Astylosterninae (Africa). Family Dendrobatidae (poison frogs) No fossil record; 8 presacral vertebrae; pectoral girdle completely firmisternal; intercalary cartilages absent; omosternum present; Bidder’s organ absent; maxillary teeth present or absent. Larvae carried on backs of adults;

joint disease, any of the diseases or injuries that affect human joints. Arthritis is no doubt the best-known joint disease, but there are also many others. Diseases of the joints may be variously short-lived or exceedingly chronic, agonizingly painful or merely nagging and uncomfortable; they may

bone disease: Therapeutic and corrective measures: Arthroplasty, aimed at restoration of normal joint motion, is usually performed because of pain and restricted motion—for example, in rheumatoid arthritis of the elbow or the hip—but occasionally to restrict mobility—for example, in recurrent dislocation of the shoulder. Structural support and smooth gliding surfaces can…

Arthropleura, genus of exceptionally large extinct millipede-like arthropods that thrived from the Viséan Age of the Carboniferous Period to the Asselian Age of the Permian Period (346.7 million to 293.52 million years ago) and are known from their fossilized exoskeletons. Members of Arthropleura

arthropod, (phylum Arthropoda), any member of the phylum Arthropoda, the largest phylum in the animal kingdom, which includes such familiar forms as lobsters, crabs, spiders, mites, insects, centipedes, and millipedes. Of the nearly 1.8 million animal species that have been described by science,

arbovirus, acronym derived from arthropod-borne virus, any of a group of RNA viruses that develop in arthropods (chiefly blood-sucking mosquitoes and ticks), in which they cause no apparent harm, and are subsequently transmitted by bites to vertebrate hosts, in which they establish infections and

arthropod, (phylum Arthropoda), any member of the phylum Arthropoda, the largest phylum in the animal kingdom, which includes such familiar forms as lobsters, crabs, spiders, mites, insects, centipedes, and millipedes. Of the nearly 1.8 million animal species that have been described by science,

rotator cuff injury: Treatment and prognosis: …minimally invasive surgery known as arthroscopic rotator cuff repair is commonly used, in which small instruments and a camera are inserted through tiny incisions to reattach the torn tendon to the upper arm bone. This procedure can help decrease pain, stem further functional deterioration of the shoulder, and facilitate strength…

osteoarthritis, disorder of the joints characterized by progressive deterioration of the articular cartilage or of the entire joint, including the articular cartilage, the synovium (joint lining), the ligaments, and the subchondral bone (bone beneath the cartilage). Osteoarthritis is the most

King Arthur, legendary British king who appears in a cycle of medieval romances (known as the Matter of Britain) as the sovereign of a knightly fellowship of the Round Table. It is not certain how these legends originated or whether the figure of Arthur was based on a historical person. The legend

Burt Bacharach: …Can Do)” for the comedy Arthur (1981). He and Sager subsequently collaborated on a number of hits and were married from 1982 to 1991. His later works included the album Painted from Memory (1998), a collaboration with singer-songwriter Elvis Costello; the score for the film A Boy Called Po (2016);…

Arthur, village, Douglas and Moultrie counties, east-central Illinois, U.S. It lies about 30 miles (50 km) southwest of Champaign. Founded in 1873 as a railroad switching point, it was originally called Glasgow but was soon renamed for a brother of Robert Hervey, president of the Paris and Decatur

John V: …later allowed his own brother Arthur to become constable of France when the dauphin was claiming the French crown as Charles VII. Though he made efforts toward a real entente with Charles in the 1430s, John was party to the revolts of the Praguerie in 1440 and the League of…

Julian Barnes: Novels and short stories: …not in the historical novel Arthur & George (2005), in which one of the title characters is based on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. In 2011 Barnes published Pulse, a collection of short stories, as well as The Sense of an Ending, a Booker Prize-winning novel that uses an unreliable narrator…

Arthur Andersen, Arthur Andersen LLP was one of the largest public accounting firms in the 1990s, with more than 85,000 employees operating in 84 countries. During the last decade of the partnership’s life, auditors at several regional offices failed to detect, ignored, or approved accounting

Guinness: In 1985 the firm acquired Arthur Bell & Sons PLC, a distiller of Scotch whisky, and in 1986 it bought The Distillers Co. PLC, which was the largest Scotch distiller in the world. Guinness’s use of clandestine and apparently illegal stock transactions in acquiring Distillers created a major corporate scandal…

research and development: Independent laboratories: …of organization is represented by Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Mass., which is run on strictly commercial lines, seeking to make a commercially viable profit from the resources employed. Only one or two organizations of similar type have been established in western Europe, and they have not grown to a…

Guinness, former company, incorporated in 1886 as Arthur Guinness Son & Co. Ltd., best known as the brewer of a distinctive dark and creamy stout. In 1997 the company merged with Grand Metropolitan PLC to form Diageo PLC. Guinness remains a brand of that company, which is headquartered in London.

Guinness, former company, incorporated in 1886 as Arthur Guinness Son & Co. Ltd., best known as the brewer of a distinctive dark and creamy stout. In 1997 the company merged with Grand Metropolitan PLC to form Diageo PLC. Guinness remains a brand of that company, which is headquartered in London.

Arthur I was the duke of Brittany, a grandson of King Henry II of England; he was a rival of his uncle John (king of England from 1199) for several French provinces, both in his own interest and in that of King Philip II Augustus of France. In October 1190 Arthur was recognized as heir presumptive

Arthur II was the duke of Brittany (1305–12), son of John II and Beatrice of England. By successive marriages before his accession, he acquired the viscounty of Limoges (1275) and the county of Montfort-l’Amaury (1292). During his short reign, the war between Edward I of England and Philip IV of

Arthur, constable de Richemont was the constable of France (from 1425) who fought for Charles VII under the banner of Joan of Arc and later fought further battles against the English (1436–53) in the final years of the Hundred Years’ War. In childhood (1399) he had been given the English title of

Arthur, constable de Richemont was the constable of France (from 1425) who fought for Charles VII under the banner of Joan of Arc and later fought further battles against the English (1436–53) in the final years of the Hundred Years’ War. In childhood (1399) he had been given the English title of

Arthur Kill Bridge, steel vertical-lift bridge, completed in 1959, spanning the Arthur Kill (channel) between Elizabeth, New Jersey, and Staten Island, New York. The movable section, suspended from two 215-foot- (66-metre-) high towers, is 558 feet (170 metres) long and can be raised 135 feet (41

Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution museum located on the Mall in Washington, D.C., noted for its collection of Asian art. The foundation of the gallery’s collection was a donation of approximately 1,000 works owned by Arthur M. Sackler, a New York City psychiatrist who also

Arthur Miller was known for several thoughtful, exceptional plays, notably All My Sons, the Pulitzer Prize-winning Death of a Salesman, and The Crucible. He closely examined his characters’ inner lives, and the hard truths he revealed bore the stamp of his own disillusionment, forged during the

Arthur Murray: …publicity from the television show The Arthur Murray Party (1950–60), hosted by Kathryn Murray and featuring dance instruction, dance contests, singing, and comedy sketches. In the 1960s Arthur Murray’s high-pressure sales tactics and contest promotions came under the scrutiny of the Federal Trade Commission. In 1964 Murray resigned as president,…

Colin Firth: From the The King’s Speech to the Kingsman series: In the dark comedy Arthur Newman (2012), he starred as a discontented family man who fakes his death and embarks on a journey under an assumed identity. He played a former World War II prisoner of war who goes in search of the Japanese interpreter who tortured him in…

Arthur Pass, road through the Southern Alps, west-central South Island, New Zealand. At an elevation of 3,018 feet (920 metres), it is the lowest pass and the only crossing for motor traffic between the Haast and Lewis passes. It crosses a mountain ridge between peaks 6,000 feet (1,800 metres)

cable-stayed bridge: …until the opening of the Arthur Ravenel Bridge in South Carolina in 2005. The Dames Point Bridge crosses the St. Johns River in Jacksonville, Florida, and its main span is 390 metres (1,300 feet), with side spans of 200 metres (660 feet). From H-shaped towers of reinforced concrete, two planes…

Arthur Pass, road through the Southern Alps, west-central South Island, New Zealand. At an elevation of 3,018 feet (920 metres), it is the lowest pass and the only crossing for motor traffic between the Haast and Lewis passes. It crosses a mountain ridge between peaks 6,000 feet (1,800 metres)

Edinburgh: City site: One of them, called Arthur’s Seat, the centrepiece of the royal park, has an elevation of 823 feet (251 metres) and dominates the city’s southeastern flank. The valleys between these striking hills were scoured deep and clean by glacial action in the Pleistocene Epoch. Edinburgh has been built on…

Christopher Cross: …That You Can Do),” the theme song from the film Arthur (1981). It won the Academy Award for best original song. In 1983 Cross released his second solo effort, Another Page, which features vocals by Art Garfunkel, Karla Bonoff, and Carl Wilson. It sold only half as well as Cross’s…

The Golden Girls: Premise and characters: …and divorced Dorothy Zbornak (Bea Arthur). Rose, who grew up on a farm in Minnesota, is sweet but naive. Southern belle Blanche, who owns the home that the others share with her, is “man-hungry” and self-absorbed. Brooklyn native Dorothy is witty and sarcastic and works as a teacher. The…

Chester A. Arthur was the 21st president of the United States (1881–85). Elected vice president on the Republican ticket of 1880, Arthur became president after the assassination of President James A. Garfield. As president, he confounded his critics and dismayed many of his friends among the

Chester A. Arthur was the 21st president of the United States (1881–85). Elected vice president on the Republican ticket of 1880, Arthur became president after the assassination of President James A. Garfield. As president, he confounded his critics and dismayed many of his friends among the

Ellen Arthur was the wife of Chester A. Arthur, 21st president of the United States. She never served as first lady because she died of pneumonia before her husband assumed office. The president’s sister, Mary Arthur McElroy, acted as White House hostess. Ellen Lewis Herndon was the daughter of

ice hockey: Early organization: …game when the Canadian governor-general, Frederick Arthur, Lord Stanley of Preston, donated a cup to be given annually to the top Canadian team. The three-foot-high silver cup became known as the Stanley Cup and was first awarded in 1892–93. (The first winner was the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association team, which…

J.C. Arthur was an American botanist who discovered basic facts about the parasitic fungi known as rusts. Graduated from what is now Iowa State University, Ames, in 1872, Arthur received his doctorate at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., in 1886. In 1887 he became professor of botany at Purdue

Jean Arthur was an American film actress known for her cracked, throaty voice, which accentuated her charm and intelligence in a series of successful comedies. After modeling and performing in small parts on the Broadway stage, Arthur made her screen debut in a silent western, Cameo Kirby (1923).

J.C. Arthur was an American botanist who discovered basic facts about the parasitic fungi known as rusts. Graduated from what is now Iowa State University, Ames, in 1872, Arthur received his doctorate at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., in 1886. In 1887 he became professor of botany at Purdue

Ellen Arthur was the wife of Chester A. Arthur, 21st president of the United States. She never served as first lady because she died of pneumonia before her husband assumed office. The president’s sister, Mary Arthur McElroy, acted as White House hostess. Ellen Lewis Herndon was the daughter of

Owen Arthur was a Barbadian politician who served as prime minister (1994–2008) of Barbados. His economic policies significantly cut unemployment and won his party near-total control of the House of Assembly. Arthur was raised in the parish (subregion) of St. Peter. He earned a bachelor’s degree in

Owen Arthur was a Barbadian politician who served as prime minister (1994–2008) of Barbados. His economic policies significantly cut unemployment and won his party near-total control of the House of Assembly. Arthur was raised in the parish (subregion) of St. Peter. He earned a bachelor’s degree in

Sir George Arthur, 1st Baronet was a colonial administrator who was governor of Van Diemen’s Land (now Tasmania) from 1825 to 1836. His efforts to expand the island’s economy were remarkably successful. After army duty in the Napoleonic Wars in Europe and Egypt (1804–14), Arthur served as

Arthurian legend, the body of stories and medieval romances, known as the matter of Britain, centring on the legendary king Arthur. Medieval writers, especially the French, variously treated stories of Arthur’s birth, the adventures of his knights, and the adulterous love between his knight Sir

Arthurian legend, the body of stories and medieval romances, known as the matter of Britain, centring on the legendary king Arthur. Medieval writers, especially the French, variously treated stories of Arthur’s birth, the adventures of his knights, and the adulterous love between his knight Sir

Arthus phenomenon, local swelling, redness, and tissue death following skin injection of soluble antigen into a subject previously immunized by a series of similar injections. The tissue damage is a result of the precipitation of antigen–antibody complexes in the walls of the blood vessels; the

arti, in Hindu and Jain rites, the waving of lighted lamps before an image of a god or a person to be honored. In performing the rite, the worshipper circles the lamp three times in a clockwise direction while chanting a prayer or singing a hymn. Arti is one of the most frequently observed parts of

Italy: Florence in the 14th century: …the seven major guilds, or arti maggiori—that is, the judges and notaries, the Calimala (bankers and international traders in cloth), the money changers, the silk merchants, the doctors and apothecaries, the wool merchants, and the dealers in furs. Together with dominant figures from five guilds of lesser status (the arti…

Italy: Florence in the 14th century: …guilds of lesser status (the arti medie, or middle guilds, consisting of the butchers, the shoemakers, the smiths, the stonemasons, and the secondhand dealers), the popolo gathered every two months to elect six priors who ruled Florence as supreme magistrates.

Jamaican fruit bat, (Artibeus jamaicensis), a common and widespread bat of Central and South America with a fleshy nose leaf resembling a third ear positioned on the muzzle. The Jamaican fruit bat has gray-brown fur and indistinct, whitish facial stripes. It has no tail, and the membrane stretching

fruit bat, any of numerous tropical bat species belonging either to the Old World fruit bats (family Pteropodidae), such as flying foxes, or to fruit-eating genera of the American leaf-nosed bats (family Phyllostomidae), especially those of the genus Artibeus (see Jamaican fruit

Artibonite River, river, the longest on the island of Hispaniola. It rises in the Cordillera Central (Cibao Mountains) of the Dominican Republic and flows southwest along the border with Haiti and then west and northwest into Haiti and through the fertile Artibonite Plain to enter the Gulf of La

artichoke, (Cynara cardunculus, variety scolymus), large thistlelike perennial plant of the aster family (Asteraceae) grown for its edible flower buds. The flesh at the base of the thick leathery bracts and the receptacle of the immature flower head, known as the heart, are a culinary delicacy. The

Romance languages: The emergence of articles: The definite and indefinite articles were unknown in Latin but developed everywhere in Romance, usually from the Latin demonstrative ille ‘that’ (though in a few parts from reflexive ipse ‘himself’) and the numeral unus ‘one.’ The definite article is proclitic (attaches to the following…

Weimar Republic: The Treaty of Versailles: …the Allies inserted the famous war-guilt clause, article 231:

Russia: The State Duma: …at any time and, under Article 87, to pass emergency decrees when they were not in session.

International Monetary Fund: Advising borrowing governments: …these contacts, known as “Article IV Consultations,” the IMF attempts to assess each country’s economic health and to forestall future financial problems. The fund also operates the IMF Institute, a department that provides training in macroeconomic analysis and policy formulation for officials of member countries.

Mikhayl Mikhaylovich Shcherbatov: …1759 and 1761 in the Articles and Translations for Use and Amusement, Russia’s first scientific and literary journal, which had been founded by Prince M.V. Lomonosov in 1755. These early works paradoxically combine the ideas of the Enlightenment with the pessimistic estimate of human nature and social progress that prompted…

joint: Articular cartilage: Articular cartilage (cartilage that covers the articulating part of a bone) is of the type called hyaline (glasslike) because thin sections of it are translucent, even transparent. Unlike bone, it is easily cut by a sharp knife. It is deformable but elastic, and…

joint: Articular nerves: The sources of nerve fibres to a joint conform well to Hilton’s law—the nerves to the muscles acting on a joint give branches to that joint as well as to the skin over the area of action of these muscles. Thus, the knee…

lamp shells: Paleontology: The Articulata, diverse and most numerous from Ordovician times to the present, were, in the Cambrian, represented by several specialized forms. Articulate evolution tended toward shell elaboration for bottom dwelling and perfection of feeding mechanisms from the simple looped lophophore to the elaborate lobate and spiral…

Equisetopsida, (division Pteridophyta), class of primitive spore-bearing vascular plants. Most members of the group are extinct and known only from their fossilized remains. The sole living genus, Equisetum, order Equisetales, is made up of 15 species of very ancient herbaceous plants, the

automobile: Axles: Articulated rear axles offer individual wheel suspension at the rear as well as the front. Individual rear suspension not only eliminates the heavy rear axle housing but also permits lowered bodies with no floor humps, because the transmission and differential gears can be combined in…

bus: Modern buses: Articulated buses were first used in Europe in the 1950s. In this arrangement a trailer body is connected to the rear of a conventional front-engine bus by means of a hitch, a flexible diaphragm, and a continuous floor panel with arcuate mating surfaces during turn…

Ordovician radiation: In the Early Ordovician Epoch, articulate (jointed) brachiopods, gastropods, and cephalopods appeared in shallow-water habitats as inarticulate brachiopods and trilobites declined in those habitats. Through the remainder of the Ordovician Period, articulate brachiopods and gastropods continued to spread farther offshore as trilobites and inarticulate brachiopods became rarer in all but…

education: The psychology and pedagogy of Herbart: Herbart speaks of “articulation”—a systematic method of constructing correct, or moral, idea masses in the student’s mind. First the student becomes involved in a particular problem, and then he considers its context. Each of these two stages has a phase of rest and of progress, and thus there…

articulation, in phonetics, a configuration of the vocal tract (the larynx and the pharyngeal, oral, and nasal cavities) resulting from the positioning of the mobile organs of the vocal tract (e.g., tongue) relative to other parts of the vocal tract that may be rigid (e.g., hard palate). This

Giordano Bruno: Works: …of minor works, including the Articuli centum et sexaginta (1588; “160 Articles”) against contemporary mathematicians and philosophers, in which he expounded his conception of religion—a theory of the peaceful coexistence of all religions based upon mutual understanding and the freedom of reciprocal discussion. At Helmstedt, however, in January 1589 he…

Spanish literature: Costumbrismo: The cuadro de costumbres and artículo de costumbres—short literary sketches on customs, manners, or character—were two types of costumbrista writing, typically published in the popular press or included as an element of longer literary works such as novels. The cuadro was inclined to description for its own sake, whereas the…

archaeology: …describe, classify, and analyze the artifacts he studies. An adequate and objective taxonomy is the basis of all archaeology, and many good archaeologists spend their lives in this activity of description and classification. But the main aim of the archaeologist is to place the material remains in historical contexts, to…

apprenticeship: Early history: …conditions of apprenticeship with the Statute of Artificers of 1563, which attempted to limit exclusionary practices and to ensure adequate labour.

abrasive: Abrasive materials: their composition and properties: Synthetic abrasives, on the other hand, are the product of considerable processing of raw materials or chemical precursors; they include silicon carbide, synthetic diamond, and alumina (a synthetic form of corundum). Most natural abrasives have been replaced by synthetic materials because nearly all industrial applications…

metallurgy: Hardening treatments: Aging is done at an elevated temperature that is still well below the temperature at which the precipitate will dissolve. If the alloy is heated still further, the precipitate will coarsen; that is, the finest particles will dissolve so that the average particle size will…