blood transfusion: Blood substitutes: Shortages in blood supplies and concerns about the safety of donated blood have fueled the development of so-called blood substitutes. The two major types of blood substitutes are volume expanders, which include solutions such as saline that are used to replace lost plasma…

prosthesis, artificial substitute for a missing part of the body. The artificial parts that are most commonly thought of as prostheses are those that replace lost arms and legs, but bone, artery, and heart valve replacements are common (see artificial organ), and artificial eyes and teeth are also

artificial insemination, the introduction of semen into the vagina or cervix of a female by any method other than sexual intercourse. The procedure is widely used in animal breeding and is used in humans when a male is sterile or impotent or when a couple suffers from unexplained infertility (when

pacemaker, electronic cardiac-support device that produces rhythmic electrical impulses that take over the regulation of the heartbeat in patients with certain types of heart disease. A healthy human heart contains its own electrical conducting system capable of controlling both the rate and the

contrast medium, substance comparatively opaque to X ray, which, when present in an organ or tissue, causes a lighter appearance—i.e., a more definite image—on the X-ray film. Some body structures, such as the lungs, show in X-ray films and in fluoroscopic images by virtue of the sharp difference

corundum: Artificial corundum may be produced as a specialty product, as for gem use, by slow accretion and controlled growth on a boule in an oxyhydrogen flame. This procedure is known as the Verneuil process (q.v.).

flavouring: Imitation, artificial extracts, essences, and flavours: Imitation, artificial extracts, essences, and flavours are prepared by bringing into solution with alcohol, glycerol, or propylene glycol various synthetic flavouring agents to formulate an extract, essence, or flavour with the likeness of the flavour of the fruit, spirit, or…

flavouring: Imitation, artificial extracts, essences, and flavours: Imitation, artificial extracts, essences, and flavours are prepared by bringing into solution with alcohol, glycerol, or propylene glycol various synthetic flavouring agents to formulate an extract, essence, or flavour with the likeness of the flavour of the fruit, spirit, or…

artificial intelligence: Is artificial general intelligence (AGI) possible?: What Do You Think? Explore the ProCon debate

artificial heart, device that maintains blood circulation and oxygenation in the human body for varying periods of time. The two main types of artificial hearts are the heart-lung machine and the mechanical heart. The heart-lung machine is a mechanical pump that maintains a patient’s blood

earthquake: Artificial induction: Earthquakes are sometimes caused by human activities, including the injection of fluids into deep wells, the detonation of large underground nuclear explosions, the excavation of mines, and the filling of large reservoirs. In the case of deep mining, the removal of rock produces…

artificial insemination, the introduction of semen into the vagina or cervix of a female by any method other than sexual intercourse. The procedure is widely used in animal breeding and is used in humans when a male is sterile or impotent or when a couple suffers from unexplained infertility (when

artificial intelligence (AI), the ability of a digital computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks commonly associated with intelligent beings. The term is frequently applied to the project of developing systems endowed with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the use of “computers and machines to mimic the problem-solving and decision-making capabilities of the human mind,” according to IBM. The idea of AI dates back at least 2,700 years. As explained by Adrienne Mayor, research scholar, folklorist, and science historian

history of artificial intelligence (AI), a survey of important events and people in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) from the early work of British logician Alan Turing in the 1930s to advancements at the turn of the 21st century. AI is the ability of a digital computer or

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a computer’s ability to do tasks commonly associated with human intelligence. The term is applied to the project of developing systems endowed with intellectual processes, such as the ability to reason, discover meaning, generalize, or learn from past experience.

Artificial Intelligence Act (AI Act), European Union (EU) legislation that seeks to improve EU citizens’ experience, privacy, and safety when using artificial intelligence (AI). The act places limitations on corporations and other entities that use AI in sharing or gathering information, and it

artificial intelligence programming language, a computer language developed expressly for implementing artificial intelligence (AI) research. In the course of their work on the Logic Theorist and GPS, two early AI programs, Allen Newell and J. Clifford Shaw of the Rand Corporation and Herbert Simon

Allen Newell: …founding president (1979–80) of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence. He was awarded the U.S. National Medal of Science in 1992.

Allen Newell: …founding president (1979–80) of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence. He was awarded the U.S. National Medal of Science in 1992.

artificial intelligence, situated approach, method of achieving artificial intelligence (AI). Traditional AI has by and large attempted to build disembodied intelligences whose only interaction with the world has been indirect (CYC, for example). Nouvelle AI, on the other hand, attempts to build

dialysis, in medicine, the process of removing blood from a patient whose kidney functioning is faulty, purifying that blood by dialysis, and returning it to the patient’s bloodstream. The artificial kidney, or hemodialyzer, is a machine that provides a means for removing certain undesirable

metalogic: …syntax (relations among expressions) of formal languages and formal systems. It is related to, but does not include, the formal treatment of natural languages. (For a discussion of the syntax and semantics of natural languages, see linguistics and semantics.)

artificial leaf, silicon-based device that uses solar energy to split hydrogen and oxygen in water, thereby producing hydrogen energy in a clean way, leaving virtually no pollutants. The technology, which was designed to simulate the natural energy-generating process of photosynthesis used by

leather: Artificial leather: Some of the earliest leather substitutes were invented in the 19th century. Nitrocellulose (guncotton) was developed by German chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1845 and was later turned into collodion (pyroxylin) in 1846 by French scientist Louis-Nicolas Ménard. Collodion was used as a…

artificial life, computer simulation of life, often used to study essential properties of living systems (such as evolution and adaptive behaviour). Artificial life became a recognized discipline in the 1980s, in part through the impetus of American computer scientist Christopher Langton, who named

electronic artificial life game, electronic game genre in which players nurture or control artificial life (A-life) forms. One of the earliest examples is The Game of Life, a cellular automaton created by the English mathematician John Conway in the 1960s. Following a few simple rules, various

petroleum production: Primary recovery: natural drive and artificial lift: …these cases, some means of “artificial lift” must be installed. The most common installation uses a pump at the bottom of the production tubing that is operated by a motor and a “walking beam” (an arm that rises and falls like a seesaw) on the surface. A string of solid…

Why Are Bugs Attracted to Light?: …attracted by the heat of artificial light. On the other hand, the escape mechanism theory says that insects respond to their instinct to escape, and fly toward a light source because they mistake it for a gap or escape path in a dark environment, such as in foliage. The popular…

Why Are Bugs Attracted to Light?: Confusion, not attraction: …about the threats posed by artificial light at night (ALAN). By interfering with their natural reflexes and interrupting their normal flying behavior, ALAN compromises insects’ ability to find food and mate, and makes them vulnerable to predation and death by exhaustion. To mitigate the harmful effects of ALAN, experts suggest…

amputation: Furthermore, modern prostheses (artificial parts), particularly for amputations in the lower extremity, have reduced the handicap for the amputee. The congenital amputee seldom requires any corrective surgery but is helped by prosthetic replacement. There is no definitely known causative factor for congenital amputation, but it probably is not…

chatbot: A.L.I.C.E. and Jabberwacky: …1995 a chatbot known as A.L.I.C.E. (Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity) was released by developer Richard Wallace. In creating A.L.I.C.E., Wallace improved upon the AI used by Eliza after monitoring its conversations. After A.L.I.C.E. was presented with a sentence or phrase that it could not recognize, Wallace would add a…

cognitive science: Approaches: …be represented in structures called artificial neural networks, which are simplified models of the neurological structure of the brain. Each network consists of simple processing units and a set of connections between them. Signals between nodes are transmitted on the basis of the connections, the strength of the signal depending…

artificial organ, any machine, device, or other material that is used to replace the functions of a faulty or missing organ or other part of the human body. Artificial organs include the artificial heart and pacemaker (qq.v.), the use of dialysis (q.v.) to perform kidney functions, and the use of

artificial intelligence: Perception: In perception the environment is scanned by means of various sensory organs, real or artificial, and the scene is decomposed into separate objects in various spatial relationships. Analysis is complicated by the fact that an object may appear different depending on the angle from…

legal personhood, fundamental aspect of Western law that allows a person, corporation, or other entity to engage in the legal system. A legal person can own property, be sued by or sue others, agree to contracts, and engage in other actions within a legal system. The concept of legal personhood has

Sèvres porcelain: …true, porcelain as well as soft-paste porcelain (a porcellaneous material rather than true porcelain) made at the royal factory (now the national porcelain factory) of Sèvres, near Versailles, from 1756 until the present; the industry was located earlier at Vincennes. On the decline of Meissen after 1756 from its supreme…

virtual reality: Entertainment: …environments, which he later called artificial reality. Much of Krueger’s work, especially his VIDEOPLACE system, processed interactions between a participant’s digitized image and computer-generated graphical objects. VIDEOPLACE could analyze and process the user’s actions in the real world and translate them into interactions with the system’s virtual objects in various…

artificial reef, structure built by human beings that serves as a substitute for a natural coral reef or rocky reef. An artificial reef provides a substrate upon which algae, corals and other cnidarians, and other marine organisms can attach themselves. Over time artificial reefs can develop into

artificial respiration, breathing induced by some manipulative technique when natural respiration has ceased or is faltering. Such techniques, if applied quickly and properly, can prevent some deaths from drowning, choking, strangulation, suffocation, carbon monoxide poisoning, and electric shock.

Earth satellite, artificial object launched into a temporary or permanent orbit around Earth. Spacecraft of this type may be either crewed or uncrewed, the latter being the most common. The idea of an artificial satellite in orbital flight was first suggested by Sir Isaac Newton in his book

flavouring: Imitation, artificial extracts, essences, and flavours: Imitation, artificial extracts, essences, and flavours are prepared by bringing into solution with alcohol, glycerol, or propylene glycol various synthetic flavouring agents to formulate an extract, essence, or flavour with the likeness of the flavour of the fruit, spirit, or…

selective breeding, the practice of mating individuals with desired traits as a means of increasing the frequency of those traits in a population. In selective breeding, the breeder attempts to isolate and propagate the genotypes (genetic constitutions) that are responsible for an organism’s

rayon, artificial textile material composed of regenerated and purified cellulose derived from plant sources. Developed in the late 19th century as a substitute for silk, rayon was the first man-made fibre. Rayon is described as a regenerated fibre because the cellulose, obtained from soft woods or

How Is Artificial Snow Made?: … falls at winter sports resorts, artificial snow is used to supplement nature’s deficit. Despite its name artificial snow is not made of different materials from real snow. Natural hexagonal snowflakes are made when ice crystals form around minute particles of dust or chemical substances in the air, or when it…

nutritional disease: Tooth decay: Artificial sweeteners are not cariogenic, and xylitol, a sugar alcohol used in some chewing gums, is even cariostatic, i.e., it reduces new tooth decay by inhibiting plaque and suppressing decay-causing bacteria. Putting an infant to sleep with a bottle, especially one containing juice or other…

geoengineering: Direct air capture: In contrast, artificial trees essentially would be a series of sticky, resin-covered filters that would convert captured CO2 to a carbonate called soda ash. Periodically, the soda ash would be washed off the filters and collected for storage.

Astrodome: AstroTurf, a brand of nylon grass named for the team, was developed when it became apparent that the dome’s Lucite panels prevented the growth of natural grass on the playing field.

mechanical ventilation, the use of an automated machine to move air in and out of the lungs, doing the work of breathing for patients who have stopped breathing or whose breathing is sporadic. Mechanical ventilation machines keep the airways open, allowing for the continual exchange of oxygen and

Joan Miró: Mature work and international recognition: …together with his potter friend José Lloréns Artigas, produced ceramics with a new impetuosity of expression: their vessels were often intentionally misshapen and fragmented.

Artigas, city and river port, northwestern Uruguay. The city lies along the Cuareim River (Quaraí River in Brazil) across from Quaraí, Brazil, in the Santa Ana Hills (Santana Hills in Brazil). It was founded in 1852 as San Eugenio and was renamed in honour of José Gervasio Artigas, the national

José Gervasio Artigas was a soldier and revolutionary leader who is regarded as the father of Uruguayan independence, although that goal was not attained until several years after he had been forced into exile. As a youth Artigas was a gaucho, or cowboy, in the interior of what is now Uruguay. In

György Ligeti: , Artikulation, 1958) as well as music for instrumentalists and vocalists. In the early 1960s he caused a sensation with his Future of Music—A Collective Composition (1961) and his Poème symphonique (1962). The former consists of the composer regarding the audience from the stage and the…

Mount Conner, most easterly of central Australia’s giant tors, or monoliths, which include Uluru/Ayers Rock and the Olga Rocks (Kata Tjuta), southern Northern Territory. Rising above the desert plain southeast of Lake Amadeus, Mount Conner is flat-topped and horseshoe-shaped and reaches to 2,500

artillery, in military science, crew-served big guns, howitzers, or mortars having a calibre greater than that of small arms, or infantry weapons. Rocket launchers are also commonly categorized as artillery, since rockets perform much the same function as artillery projectiles, but the term

cricket: The early years: …to London, notably to the Artillery Ground, Finsbury, which saw a famous match between Kent and All-England in 1744. Heavy betting and disorderly crowds were common at matches.

Pilea: Especially popular are the artillery plant, or rockweed (Pilea microphylla), with fine fernlike foliage and anthers that forcefully expel their pollen when mature; aluminum plant, or watermelon pilea (P. cadierei), with silvery markings on glossy dark green leaves; Chinese money plant (P. peperomioides), with long petioles (leaf stalks) attached…

Emil Artin was an Austro-German mathematician who made fundamental contributions to class field theory, notably the general law of reciprocity. After one year at the University of Göttingen, Artin joined the staff of the University of Hamburg in 1923. He emigrated to the United States in 1937,

Artinskian Stage, third of the four stages of the Lower Permian (Cisuralian) Series, representing those rocks deposited during Artinskian time (290.1 million to 279.3 million years ago) in the Permian Period. Rocks of Artinskian time were deposited in marine environments. In its type area in the

artiodactyl, any member of the mammalian order Artiodactyla, or even-toed ungulates, which includes pigs, peccaries, hippopotamuses, camels, chevrotains, deer, giraffes, pronghorn, antelopes, sheep, goats, and cattle. It is one of the larger mammal orders, containing about 200 species, a total that

artiodactyl, any member of the mammalian order Artiodactyla, or even-toed ungulates, which includes pigs, peccaries, hippopotamuses, camels, chevrotains, deer, giraffes, pronghorn, antelopes, sheep, goats, and cattle. It is one of the larger mammal orders, containing about 200 species, a total that

Artis Zoological Garden, zoological garden founded in 1838 by the Royal Zoological Society of Holland. It occupies a 10-hectare (25-acre) site in Amsterdam and houses nearly 5,600 specimens of some 1,350 species. Heavily oriented toward scientific research, the zoo has an animal behaviour

Thomas Harriot: …however, was the posthumously published Artis Analyticae Praxis ad Aequationes Algebraicas Resolvendas (1631; “Application of Analytical Art to Solving Algebraic Equations”). (The editor of this work introduced the signs ∙ for multiplication, > for greater than, and < for less than.) Although Harriot published little and kept some of his…

Artis Zoological Garden, zoological garden founded in 1838 by the Royal Zoological Society of Holland. It occupies a 10-hectare (25-acre) site in Amsterdam and houses nearly 5,600 specimens of some 1,350 species. Heavily oriented toward scientific research, the zoo has an animal behaviour

John Milton: Works on history and theology: Artis Logicae (1672; “Art of Logic”) was composed in Latin, perhaps to gain the attention also of a Continental audience. It is a textbook derived from the logic of Petrus Ramus, a 16th-century French scholar whose work reflected the impact of Renaissance humanism on the…

Artis Zoological Garden, zoological garden founded in 1838 by the Royal Zoological Society of Holland. It occupies a 10-hectare (25-acre) site in Amsterdam and houses nearly 5,600 specimens of some 1,350 species. Heavily oriented toward scientific research, the zoo has an animal behaviour

organized labour: Origins of craft unionism: …adhered to a conception of artisan republicanism, which celebrated producerist values and the republican ideals of the American Revolution. Counter to this vision ran the corrosive impact of emergent industrial capitalism, which, in the view of the Philadelphia Workingmen’s Party, created “invidious distinctions [and] unjust and unnatural inequalities” by dividing…

United Kingdom: Gladstone and Disraeli: … authority in every area; the Artizans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Improvement Act of the same year enabled local authorities to embark upon schemes of slum clearance; a factory act of 1878 fixed a 56-hour workweek; while further legislation dealt with friendly societies (private societies for mutual-health and old-age insurance), the protection…

Native American art: The role of the artist: The very use of the word art suggests one of the basic differences between European or European-derived and American Indian concepts. For not only did few American Indian groups allow art to become a major way of life, as in the West, but many…

Prince was an American singer, guitarist, songwriter, producer, dancer, and performer on keyboards, drums, and bass who was among the most talented musicians of his generation. Like Stevie Wonder, he was a rare composer who could perform at a professional level on virtually all the instruments he

Anita Desai: The Artist of Disappearance (2011) collected three novellas that examined the collateral abandonment and dislocation wrought by India’s furious rush toward modernity. Her daughter Kiran Desai won the Booker Prize for the novel The Inheritance of Loss (2006).

Kazuo Ishiguro: …Japan following World War II, An Artist of the Floating World (1986) chronicles the life of elderly Masuji Ono, who reviews his past career as a political artist of imperialist propaganda. Ishiguro’s Booker Prize-winning The Remains of the Day (1989; film 1993) is a first-person narrative, the reminiscences of Stevens,…

Polyporales: …undersurface of artist’s fungus (Fomes applanatus, or Ganoderma applanatum), which darkens when cut, has been used for etching.

Western painting: Germany: The Artist’s Parents and Children (1806) reflects not only his constant search for truth but also his admiration for the early German masters, through whose work he was made aware of the expressive power of line and color. His interest in the German past, including…

Adolf von Menzel: …with a Balcony (1845) and The Artist’s Sister in the Sitting Room (1847), Menzel presaged later developments of the Impressionist movement in France in his refined feeling for the effects of light and his use of open brushstrokes.

Gustave Courbet: Leader of the new school of Realism: …he completed in six weeks: The Painter’s Studio, an allegory of all the influences on Courbet’s artistic life, which are portrayed as human figures from all levels of society. Courbet himself presides over all the figures with ingenuous conceit, working on a landscape and turning his back to a nude…

The Artist, French black-and-white film, released in 2011, that was an homage to movies of the 1920s and became the first mostly silent feature to win the Academy Award for best picture since the first Academy Awards ceremony in 1929. The movie also won the Golden Globe Award for best musical or

Prince was an American singer, guitarist, songwriter, producer, dancer, and performer on keyboards, drums, and bass who was among the most talented musicians of his generation. Like Stevie Wonder, he was a rare composer who could perform at a professional level on virtually all the instruments he

Georges Seurat: …in the foundation of the Groupe des Artistes Indépendants, an association “with neither jury nor prizes,” where he showed his Bathers in June.

Georges Seurat: …the Bathers again, with the Société des Artistes Indépendents, which was to be of immense influence in the development of modern art.

Wassily Kandinsky: Russian interlude: In 1919 he created the Institute of Artistic Culture, became director of the Moscow Museum for Pictorial Culture, and helped to organize 22 museums across the Soviet Union. In 1920 he was made a professor at the University of Moscow and was honoured with a one-man show organized by the…

directing, the craft of controlling the evolution of a performance out of material composed or assembled by an author. The performance may be live, as in a theatre and in some broadcasts, or it may be recorded, as in motion pictures and the majority of broadcast material. The term is also used in

artistic gymnastics, the most popular and widely recognized discipline of gymnastics that includes events such as balance beam, floor exercise, and rings. Each event in artistic gymnastics involves the use of different apparatus and equipment to showcase an athlete’s strength, agility, balance,

Jacques Rancière: …broadest of which Rancière calls artistic “regimes”—determine distributions of the sensible in the artistic domain and lend insight into the distributions that characterize larger society.

artistic swimming, exhibition swimming in which the movements of one or more swimmers are synchronized with musical accompaniment. The sport developed in the United States in the 1930s. The sport’s governing body replaced the name synchronized swimming with artistic swimming in 2017. Because of its

artistic swimming, exhibition swimming in which the movements of one or more swimmers are synchronized with musical accompaniment. The sport developed in the United States in the 1930s. The sport’s governing body replaced the name synchronized swimming with artistic swimming in 2017. Because of its

outsider art: History and characteristics: …and art historian Hans Prinzhorn’s Artistry of the Mentally Ill (1922), which became something of a touchstone for the Surrealists, especially Max Ernst, as well as for Dubuffet and subsequently many others.

Frank Tashlin: Films of the mid-1940s to mid-1950s: …as a director began with Artists and Models (1955), in which Dean Martin played a comic-book creator who uses the espionage-related dreams of his roommate (Jerry Lewis) as inspiration, provoking the interest of real spies. After The Lieutenant Wore Skirts (1956), with Tom Ewell and Sheree North, Tashlin directed (but…

Yasuo Kuniyoshi: …the first president of the Artists Equity Association, and he taught at the Art Students League, at the New School for Social Research in New York, and at the artists’ colony in Woodstock, New York.

Impressionism is known for its interest in depicting scenes of modern life as well as its aim to render the effects of light as the eye sees them, frequently by using relative colors. An example of relative color is illustrated in Claude Monet’s Stacks of Wheat (End of Summer) (1890/91), in which

Joshua Reynolds: Later years: …when Reynolds helped found the Society of Artists and the first of many successful exhibitions was held. The patronage of George III was sought, and in 1768 the Royal Academy was founded. Although Reynolds’s painting had found no favour at court, he was the obvious candidate for the presidency, and…

master of arts, degree and title conferred by colleges and universities to indicate the completion of a course of study in the humanities (such as philosophy, arts, or languages). Candidates are often required to take an exam and to complete a thesis or creative project. Programs usually take an

Tania Bruguera: She founded (2015) the Institute of Artivism/Instituto de Artivismo Hannah Arendt (INSTAR) in order to “foster civic literacy and policy change.” Her advocacy of free speech often ran afoul of the Cuban government.

United Kingdom: Gladstone and Disraeli: … authority in every area; the Artizans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Improvement Act of the same year enabled local authorities to embark upon schemes of slum clearance; a factory act of 1878 fixed a 56-hour workweek; while further legislation dealt with friendly societies (private societies for mutual-health and old-age insurance), the protection…

breadfruit, (Artocarpus altilis), tree of the mulberry family (Moraceae) and its large fruits that are a staple food of the South Pacific and other tropical areas. Breadfruit contains considerable amounts of starch and is seldom eaten raw. It may be roasted, baked, boiled, fried, or dried and

jackfruit, (Artocarpus heterophyllus), evergreen tree (family Moraceae) native to tropical Asia and widely grown throughout the wetland tropics for its large fruits and durable wood. The greenish unripe fruit is cooked as a vegetable, and the brown ripened fruit is eaten fresh for the sweetly acid

Artois, historic and cultural region encompassing most of the northern French département of Pas-de-Calais and coextensive with the former province of Artois. The names of Artois and Arras, the capital, are derived from the Atrebates, who inhabited the district during Julius Caesar’s time. From the

Charles X was the king of France from 1824 to 1830. His reign dramatized the failure of the Bourbons, after their restoration, to reconcile the tradition of the monarchy by divine right with the democratic spirit produced in the wake of the French Revolution. The fifth son of the dauphin Louis and

history of the Low Countries: Unification after Alba: 6, 1579, the Union of Arras (Artois) was formed in the south among Artois, Hainaut, and the town of Douay, based on the Pacification of Ghent but retaining the Roman Catholic religion, loyalty to the king, and the privileges of the estates. As a reaction to the accommodation…

Désirée Artôt was a Belgian mezzo-soprano, member of a famous family of musicians. Acclaimed in France as an opera singer, she suddenly married the Spanish baritone Mariano Padilla y Ramos (1842–1906) while briefly engaged to Tchaikovsky. Her daughter Lola Artôt de Padilla (1885–1933), a soprano