Caliphate

Caliphate, the political-religious state comprising the Muslim community and the lands and peoples under its dominion in the centuries following the death (632 ce) of the Prophet Muhammad. Ruled by a caliph (Arabic khalīfah, “successor”), who held temporal and sometimes a degree of spiritual authority, the empire of the Caliphate grew rapidly through conquest during its first two centuries to include most of Southwest Asia, North Africa, and Spain. Dynastic struggles later brought about the Caliphate’s decline, and it ceased to exist as a functioning political institution with the Mongol destruction of Baghdad in 1258.

This article covers the history of the original caliphal state based in Arabia, the Levant, and Mesopotamia in the 7th–13th century. See caliph for a general discussion of the titular position that heads a caliphate; see also Fāṭimid dynasty and Caliphate of Córdoba for other historical examples of caliphates.

Leadership after Muhammad

The urgent need for a successor to Muhammad as political leader of the Muslim community was met by a group of Muslim elders in Medina who designated Abū Bakr, the Prophet’s father-in-law, as caliph. According to the majority of Muslims, the Prophet himself had left no instructions for the selection of a leader after him, although a small minority—the precursors of the group later known as the Shiʿah—advocated for ʿAlī’s claim to the Caliphate. It would be anachronistic to assume that this early group supported ʿAlī because he was a cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet. Rather, the early literature indicates that the legitimate caliph was expected to have been an early convert to Islam (precedence in converting to Islam was termed sābiqah in Arabic) and to possess a constellation of moral excellences (faḍāʾil in Arabic), such as truthfulness, generosity, courage, and, above all, knowledge. The caliph’s authority was largely epistemic—that is to say, based on his superior knowledge of both religious and worldly affairs.

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Later, during the Umayyad period (661–750), there was a growing emphasis on kinship to the Prophet as a criterion of legitimate leadership, likely because the Umayyads wished to thereby compensate for their lack of sābiqah, having accepted Islam late during the Prophet’s lifetime. In response, supporters of the claim to leadership of ʿAlī and his descendents emphasized their lineal descent from the Prophet’s family as a marker of their legitimacy. By the 10th century the orthodox Sunni majority had also come to acknowledge kinship as a factor by understanding legitimate leadership to inhere in descent from the Quraysh, Muhammad’s natal tribe, to which the first four caliphs also belonged.

Although the reigns of the first four caliphs—Abū Bakr, ʿUmar I, ʿUthmān, and ʿAlī—were marred by political upheaval, civil war, and assassination, the era was remembered by later generations of Muslims as a golden age of Islam, and the four caliphs were collectively known as the “rightly guided caliphs” because of their close personal associations with Muhammad. The rightly guided caliphs largely established the administrative and judicial organization of the Muslim community and directed the conquest of new lands. In the 630s Syria, Jordan, Palestine, and Iraq were conquered, Egypt was taken from Byzantine control in 645, and frequent raids were launched into North Africa, Armenia, and Persia.

The Umayyads

The assassination of ʿUthmān and the troubled caliphate of ʿAlī that followed sparked the first sectarian split in the Muslim community. By 661 ʿAlī’s rival Muʿāwiyah I, a fellow member of ʿUthmān’s Umayyad clan, had wrested away the caliphate, and his rule established the Umayyad dynasty, which lasted until 750. Despite the largely successful reign of Muʿāwiyah, tribal and sectarian disputes erupted after his death. The majority of Muslims regarded the Umayyads as nominally Muslim at best, given their worldly and opulent lifestyles. They were also unpopular on account of their having established dynastic rule by force. Their reign is contemptuously referred to in later sources as mere “kingship” (mulk)—in contrast to the caliphate, which was supposed to be based on the superior personal merits of the ruler and established through a process of consultation with the people. In a conscious effort to confer legitimacy on themselves and to acquire a religious aura, the Umayyads chose the title khalīfat allāh, “the deputy of God,” in contradistinction to the first two caliphs in particular, who are said to have deliberately shunned such a self-aggrandizing title.

There were three Umayyad rulers between 680 and 685, and only by nearly 20 years of military campaigning did the next one, ʿAbd al-Malik, succeed in reestablishing the authority of the Umayyad capital of Damascus. ʿAbd al-Malik is also remembered for building the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Under his son al-Walīd (705–715), Muslim forces took permanent possession of North Africa, converted the native Berbers to Islam, and overran most of the Iberian Peninsula as the Visigothic kingdom there collapsed. Progress was also made in the east with settlement in the Indus River valley. Umayyad power had never been firmly seated, however, and the Caliphate disintegrated rapidly after the long reign of Hishām (724–743). A serious rebellion broke out against the Umayyads in 747, and in 750 the last Umayyad caliph, Marwān II, was defeated in the Battle of the Great Zab by the followers of the Abbasid family.

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