Qurʾān

Qurʾān, the sacred scripture of Islam. According to conventional Islamic belief, the Qurʾān was revealed by the angel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad in the West Arabian towns Mecca and Medina beginning in 610 and ending with Muhammad’s death in 632 ce. The word qurʾān, which occurs already within the Islamic scripture itself (e.g., 9:111 and 75:17–18), is derived from the verb qaraʾa—“to read,” “to recite”—but there is probably also some connection with the Syriac qeryānā, “reading,” used for the recitation of scriptural readings during church services. The Qurʾānic corpus, composed in an early form of Classical Arabic, is traditionally believed to be a literal transcript of God’s speech and to constitute the earthly reproduction of an uncreated and eternal heavenly original, according to the general view referred to in the Qurʾān itself as “the well-preserved tablet” (al-lawḥ al-mahfūẓ; Qurʾān 85:22).

Form and content

The Qurʾān is markedly shorter than even the New Testament, let alone the Hebrew Bible. It is subdivided into 114 chapterlike units called “sūrahs,” a word used within the Qurʾān to designate revelatory passages of an unspecific length (e.g., 9:64). With the exception of the short opening sūrah, recited during each of the five daily Islamic prayers, the sūrahs are ordered roughly according to decreasing length, although this general rule is frequently interrupted. The second sūrah is by far the longest one. All sūrahs are traditionally known by names—many of them by more than one—which appear to have emerged only after the death of the Prophet. Sūrah names are usually derived from some conspicuous word in the respective text, such as “The Cow” (the second) or “The Poets” (the 26th), though they do not necessarily identify a text’s main theme. Each sūrah, apart from the ninth, is preceded by the so-called basmalah, the formulaic invocation “In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate.” Many sūrahs (e.g., the second) are opened by detached Arabic letters, the meaning of which has not yet been satisfactorily explained.

Internally, the sūrahs are subdivided into verses called āyāt (singular āyah), a word that literally means “sign” and is also used in the Qurʾān to designate manifestations of God’s power and grace, such as miscellaneous aspects of the natural world (e.g., God’s sending down of rain) or the punishments that God is said to have inflicted on sinful peoples of the past. Qurʾānic verse borders are normally defined by the presence of a verse-final rhyme, even though the Islamic tradition transmits conflicting systems of subdividing the Qurʾān into individual verses. The subdivision that is now predominant counts a total of 6,236 verses. These display extreme divergences in length, ranging from only a few words to entire paragraphs of text, but it should be noted that verse length across a given sūrah is tangibly more uniform than across the entire corpus. Unlike classical Arabic poetry, whose beginnings stretch back to pre-Islamic times, Qurʾānic verses do not adhere to a quantitative metre; i.e., they do not conform to fixed patterns of long and short syllables. In this sense, it is correct to insist, with the Islamic tradition, on a principled distinction between Qurʾānic and poetic verses. Many parts of the Qurʾān are highly formulaic, and longer verses often conclude with certain set phrases, such as “God is forgiving, compassionate” or “God is knowing, wise.”

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The Qurʾān generally styles itself as divine speech by employing the first person singular or plural (“I” or “we”) in statements that clearly refer to the Deity. However, this divine voice alternates with third-person statements about God. Utterances by Muhammad are normally introduced by the command “Say:…,” thus emphasizing that the Prophet is speaking on divine injunction only. Prophetic statements often respond to objections or denials ascribed to Muhammad’s opponents, which cast doubt on Qurʾānic doctrines such as the belief in a universal resurrection of the dead or in the existence of only one God. This can result in an extended to-and-fro that endows parts of the Qurʾān with a decidedly polemical and disputatious quality.

Many passages of the Qurʾān are devoted to describing the eschatological judgment through which God will consign each human being to paradise or hell and portraying the ensuing rewards of the saved and torments of the damned. There are also narratives, some of which centre on biblical persons, such as Adam, Moses, Jesus, and Mary. Narrative passages include brief reminiscences (e.g., 85:17–18) as well as much more extensive accounts (e.g., the 12th sūrah, devoted to the story of Joseph). Regardless of their length, these stories are generally retold in an allusive style that would appear to presuppose that they were already known to their target audience. The stress is not on details of the narrative plots but on their didactic significance, which is often explicitly pointed out by means of interjected comments. In many cases, Qurʾānic narratives show important parallels not merely to certain biblical passages but also to postbiblical Rabbinic and Christian texts. For example, the story of Abraham’s dispute with his idolatrous father and his destruction of his people’s false deities (e.g., 37:83–98) is not found in the book of Genesis itself but only in later texts, such as a Rabbinic commentary on Genesis. The mediation of those narrative traditions into the Qurʾān’s environment may very well have relied on oral transmission rather than written texts. Even where the Qurʾān retells previously attested stories, it normally does so by harnessing them to its own theological agenda. The Qurʾān’s demonstrable overlap with earlier traditions is patently in line with its self-description as providing a “confirmation” of previous revelations (e.g., 2:97).

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Except for the shortest sūrahs that are positioned toward the end of the Qurʾānic corpus, almost all others consist of a succession of paragraph-like sections between which there are frequent and often seemingly abrupt topic shifts. At first sight, the literary coherence of many sūrahs may therefore appear doubtful. Nonetheless, research conducted since the 1980s has increasingly demonstrated that the sūrahs do in fact display a high degree of compositional unity that is manifested, for instance, in the recurrence of key terms and phrases, sometimes in such a way as to create conspicuous terminological brackets or to yield concentric literary structures. Furthermore, many medium-sized sūrahs conform to a common structural template that centres on a narrative middle section. Particularly accessible examples are sūrahs 26, 37, and 54, whose middle section consists of a cycle of stories recounting how God dispatched earlier messengers to admonish their compatriots. These warners include not only biblical figures such as Noah, Abraham, and Moses but also nonbiblical messengers sent to certain ancient Arabian tribes. In almost all cases, God’s emissaries are dismissed or ignored, resulting in a catastrophic divine punishment. Apart from such obvious parallels in content, most of the individual episodes constituting these narrative cycles are also concluded by a refrain, adding further symmetry to the entire composition.

The Qurʾān forms the bedrock of Islamic law, even though many legal details are derived not from scripture but from extra-Qurʾānic utterances and actions attributed to Muhammad—the so-called Ḥadīth. Most of the Qurʾān’s legal or quasi-legal pronouncements are concentrated in a few of the longest sūrahs, the most extensive block of such material being 2:153–283. The domains covered by Qurʾānic law include matters of family law (e.g., inheritance rules), ritual law (e.g., the performance of ablution before prayer or the duty to fast during the month of Ramadan), dietary regulations (e.g., the prohibition of consuming pork or wine), criminal law (e.g., the punishment for theft or for manslaughter), and commercial law (the prohibition of usury). Concrete behavioral prescriptions are not expounded in a systematic order and can be presented as responses to audience queries—for instance, at 5:4, “They ask you what is permitted to them [to eat]. Say:….”

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