A caliph is a ruler in Islamic history, viewed as the successor to the Prophet Muhammad. The title began to formalize after Muhammad's death in 632 CE, when Abu Bakr became the leader of the Muslim community. The first four caliphs, known as the "rightly guided caliphs," are highly regarded for basing their rule on consultation, consensus, and allegiance. Although the office of the caliph is religious, it does not grant the holder the authority to define dogma or legislate. The caliph primarily functions as the chief executive of the Muslim community, tasked with implementing sacred law and acting in the community's best interests. The caliphate was abolished in 1924 after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of the Turkish Republic.

What role did a caliph have in Islamic history?

As a temporal and spiritual head, a caliph was the ruler of the Muslim community and the lands and peoples under their dominion in Islamic history. The caliphate emerged after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, with Abu Bakr assuming the title "successor of the messenger of God". The caliph's authority was largely based on their superior knowledge of religious and worldly affairs. The first four caliphs, known as the "rightly guided caliphs," established the administrative and judicial organization of the Muslim community and directed the conquest of new lands. The title of caliph was used by the Umayyad rulers of Damascus and the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. Later, the Ottoman sultans claimed the title until it was abolished in 1924.

Who was the first caliph after the Prophet Muhammad?

Following the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr became the first caliph. In 632, the Muslims in Medina resolved the succession crisis by accepting Abu Bakr as the first khalīfat rasūl Allāh , meaning "deputy of the Prophet of God," or caliph. Abu Bakr was Muhammad's closest companion and advisor. He was also the father of Muhammad's wife, Aisha. After Muhammad's death, some members of the Muslim community believed that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, should have been the Prophet's immediate successor. However, others believed that with Muhammad's death, the community should choose its own way forward.

How were caliphs chosen or selected?

The selection of caliphs, the rulers of the Muslim community, varied throughout Islamic history. After the death of Prophet Muhammad, a group of Muslim elders in Medina designated Abu Bakr, the Prophet’s father-in-law, as caliph. The first four caliphs, known as the "rightly guided caliphs," were chosen based on consultation, consensus among Muslims, and allegiance. Later, during the Umayyad period, kinship to the Prophet gained importance. By the 10th century, Sunni Muslims acknowledged descent from the Quraysh tribe (Muhammad's tribe) as a factor. Shia Muslims, however, believed that only lineal descendants of Prophet Muhammad were legitimate.

What was the significance of the caliphate in Muslim societies?

The caliphate held immense significance in Muslim societies as the political-religious state encompassing the Muslim community and its territories after the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE. The caliph, as the successor, exercised temporal and, at times, spiritual authority. The caliph's primary role was to implement sacred law and serve the community's interests, without the authority to define dogma or legislate. Although the caliphate's power waned by the mid-10th century, the ideal of the caliphate remained a source of unity, and no alternative could replace it.

How did disagreements about the caliphate lead to divisions in Islam?

Disagreements over the caliphate , the political-religious leadership of the Muslim community after the death of Prophet Muhammad, led to significant divisions within Islam. The Sunnis , the majority branch of Islam, believed that Muhammad did not designate a successor, so the Muslim community should elect one. This led to the selection of Abu Bakr. However, the Shiʿah believed that Muhammad had appointed his son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. This disagreement over succession led to a major schism in Islam between the Shiʿah, who remained loyal to Ali, and the Sunni traditionalists. Although initially political, theological differences developed over time, further solidifying the divide.

caliph

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Arabic:: khalīfah (“successor”)

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caliph

Islamic title

Also known as: calif, khalīfah

Written by

Asma Afsaruddin

Fact-checked by

Britannica Editors

Last updated

Oct. 22, 2026 •History

Top Questions

What is a caliph?
A caliph is a ruler in Islamic history, viewed as the successor to the Prophet Muhammad. The title began to formalize after Muhammad's death in 632 CE, when Abu Bakr became the leader of the Muslim community.

The first four caliphs, known as the "rightly guided caliphs," are highly regarded for basing their rule on consultation, consensus, and allegiance. Although the office of the caliph is religious, it does not grant the holder the authority to define dogma or legislate. The caliph primarily functions as the chief executive of the Muslim community, tasked with implementing sacred law and acting in the community's best interests.

The caliphate was abolished in 1924 after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of the Turkish Republic.
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Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
What role did a caliph have in Islamic history?
As a temporal and spiritual head, a caliph was the ruler of the Muslim community and the lands and peoples under their dominion in Islamic history. The caliphate emerged after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, with Abu Bakr assuming the title "successor of the messenger of God".

The caliph's authority was largely based on their superior knowledge of religious and worldly affairs. The first four caliphs, known as the "rightly guided caliphs," established the administrative and judicial organization of the Muslim community and directed the conquest of new lands.

The title of caliph was used by the Umayyad rulers of Damascus and the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. Later, the Ottoman sultans claimed the title until it was abolished in 1924.
4 Britannica Sources
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
Who was the first caliph after the Prophet Muhammad?
Following the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr became the first caliph. In 632, the Muslims in Medina resolved the succession crisis by accepting Abu Bakr as the first khalīfat rasūl Allāh, meaning "deputy of the Prophet of God," or caliph. Abu Bakr was Muhammad's closest companion and advisor. He was also the father of Muhammad's wife, Aisha. After Muhammad's death, some members of the Muslim community believed that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, should have been the Prophet's immediate successor. However, others believed that with Muhammad's death, the community should choose its own way forward.
4 Britannica Sources
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
How were caliphs chosen or selected?
The selection of caliphs, the rulers of the Muslim community, varied throughout Islamic history. After the death of Prophet Muhammad, a group of Muslim elders in Medina designated Abu Bakr, the Prophet’s father-in-law, as caliph. The first four caliphs, known as the "rightly guided caliphs," were chosen based on consultation, consensus among Muslims, and allegiance.

Later, during the Umayyad period, kinship to the Prophet gained importance. By the 10th century, Sunni Muslims acknowledged descent from the Quraysh tribe (Muhammad's tribe) as a factor. Shia Muslims, however, believed that only lineal descendants of Prophet Muhammad were legitimate.
5 Britannica Sources
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
What was the significance of the caliphate in Muslim societies?
The caliphate held immense significance in Muslim societies as the political-religious state encompassing the Muslim community and its territories after the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE. The caliph, as the successor, exercised temporal and, at times, spiritual authority.

The caliph's primary role was to implement sacred law and serve the community's interests, without the authority to define dogma or legislate. Although the caliphate's power waned by the mid-10th century, the ideal of the caliphate remained a source of unity, and no alternative could replace it.
3 Britannica Sources
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
How did disagreements about the caliphate lead to divisions in Islam?
Disagreements over the caliphate, the political-religious leadership of the Muslim community after the death of Prophet Muhammad, led to significant divisions within Islam.

The Sunnis, the majority branch of Islam, believed that Muhammad did not designate a successor, so the Muslim community should elect one. This led to the selection of Abu Bakr. However, the Shiʿah believed that Muhammad had appointed his son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor.

This disagreement over succession led to a major schism in Islam between the Shiʿah, who remained loyal to Ali, and the Sunni traditionalists. Although initially political, theological differences developed over time, further solidifying the divide.
5 Britannica Sources
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.

caliph, in Islamic history the ruler of the Muslim community. Although khalīfah and its plural khulafāʾ occur several times in the Qurʾān, referring to humans as God’s stewards or vice-regents on earth, the term did not denote a distinct political or religious institution during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad. It began to acquire its later meaning and to take shape as an institution after Muhammad’s death (June 8, 632 ce), when Abū Bakr, a companion of the Prophet and an early convert to Islam, was elected by a majority of Muslims as the leader of the Muslim community and assumed the title khalīfat rasūl Allāh, “successor of the messenger of God.” Abū Bakr’s successor, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, is said to have first assumed the title khalīfat Abī Bakr (“successor to Abū Bakr”), because the title khalīfat khalīfat rasūl Allāh (“the successor to the successor of the messenger of God”) would have been cumbersome. ʿUmar also designated himself amīr al-muʾminīn, “the commander of the faithful,” which became an additional customary title for succeeding rulers.

Abū Bakr and his three immediate successors are known as the “perfect” caliphs or the “rightly guided caliphs” (al-khulafāʾ al-rāshidun), whose combined rule is idealized by the majority of Muslims for having been based on the concepts of shūrā (consultation), ijmāʿ (consensus) of Muslims, and bayʿah (allegiance). In contrast, subsequent rulers of the Muslim polity instituted dynastic rule, which violated the concept of shūrā and, therefore, was largely regarded as illegitimate, although it was often grudgingly accepted in a pragmatic vein.

Nevertheless, the title of caliph was borne by the 14 Umayyad rulers of Damascus and subsequently by the 38 ʿAbbāsid caliphs of Baghdad, whose dynasty fell before the Mongols in 1258. There were titular caliphs of ʿAbbāsid descent in Cairo under the Mamlūks from 1258 until 1517, when the last caliph was captured by the Ottoman sultan Selim I. The Ottoman sultans then claimed the title and used it until it was abolished by the Turkish Republic on March 3, 1924.

Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, Israel, built 685-691.

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Caliphs and Caliphates

After the fall of the Umayyad dynasty at Damascus (750), the title of caliph was also assumed by the Andalusian branch of the family who ruled in Spain at Córdoba (755–1031; see also Caliphate of Córdoba), and it was also assumed by the Fāṭimid rulers of Egypt (909–1171), who claimed to descend from Fāṭimah (a daughter of Muhammad) and her husband, ʿAli.

According to the Shiʿahs, who call the supreme office the “imamate,” or leadership, no caliph is legitimate unless he is a lineal descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. Later, Sunni scholars insisted that the office belonged to the tribe of Quraysh, to which Muhammad himself belonged, but this condition would have vitiated the claim of the Ottoman sultans, who held the office after the last ʿAbbāsid caliph of Cairo transferred it to Selim I.

This table provides a list of the primary caliphs.

Primary caliphs*
caliph	reign
"Perfect" caliphs
*When Muhammad died, Abū Bakr, his father-in-law, succeeded to his political and administrative functions. He and his three immediate successors are known as the "perfect" or "rightly guided" caliphs. After them the title was borne by the 14 Umayyad caliphs of Damascus and subsequently by the 38 ʿAbbāsid caliphs of Baghdad. ʿAbbāsid power ended in 945, when the Būyids took Baghdad under their rule. The Fāṭimids, however, proclaimed a new caliphate in 920 in Tunisia, and it lasted until 1171. ʿAbbāsid authority was partially restored in the 12th century, but the caliphate ceased with the Mongol destruction of Baghdad in 1258.
Abū Bakr	632–634
ʿUmar I	634–644
ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān	644–656
ʿAlī	656–661
Umayyad caliphs (Damascus)
Muʿāwiyah I	661–680
ʿAbd al-Malik	685–705
al-Walīd	705–715
Hishām	724–743
Marwān II	744–750
ʿAbbāsid caliphs (Baghdad)
al-Saffāh	749–754
Hārūn al-Rashīd	786–809
al-Maʾmūn	813–833
Fāṭimid caliphs (Al-Mahdiyyah)
al-Mahdī	909–934
al-Qāʾim	934–946
al-Manṣūr	946–953
al-Muʿizz	953–975
al-Ḥākim	996–1021
al-Mustanṣir	1036–94
al-Mustaʿlī	1094–1101
ʿAbbāsid caliph (Baghdad)
al-Nāṣir	1180–1225

Asma Afsaruddin

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