- Also known as:
- Imperial Guptas
Gupta dynasty
When did the Gupta dynasty rule India?
What are some cultural achievements of the Gupta period?
Who was the founder of the Gupta empire?
What is the significance of the Iron Pillar of Delhi?
What was the administrative structure of the Gupta empire?
Gupta dynasty, dynasty that ruled over northern and parts of central and western India from the early 4th to the mid-6th century ce. The Gupta empire was for long thought to have originated in Magadha (now west-central Bihar) or northern Bengal, but historians later contended that it more likely originated in the lower Ganga-Yamuna Doab (in present-day Uttar Pradesh). Not much is known about the social background or caste of the Guptas. Historians have variously used their name and marriage alliances to infer that they were Vaishyas, Kshatriyas, or Brahmins.
The Gupta period, as the broad period beginning about 300 ce and continuing to about 600 ce is referred to, was regarded by many as the golden age and the classical age of India, when much of Indian literature, art, architecture, and philosophy was thought to have been at its peak, be it in the form of the decimal system of notation; the great Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata; the many notable Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain sculptures and architectural features; or contributions to the sciences of astronomy, mathematics, and metallurgy. While scholars have argued that a distinct Gupta style of art and architecture can be identified in many temples, sculptures, and art forms of this period, the notion of the “golden age”—typically associated with a single dynasty and a single period and viewed as applicable to all strata of society, across all regions—has been debated. Contemporary historians have argued that some of the great cultural achievements associated with this period are a culmination of processes that began earlier and are therefore not limited to this period or to the boundaries of the Gupta empire. Some of the cultural excellence of this period was also achieved with the patronage of other influential dynasties of the period, such as the Vakataka dynasty in the Deccan. Further, the elite classes may have experienced the high culture that is seen as a hallmark of this period, leaving out the lower strata of society, and historians point toward more than just one classical period in Indian history.
History
A ruler referred to in various sources as Maharaja Gupta or Sri Gupta (or Srigupta) and his son Ghatotkacha, who also held the title of maharaja, are regarded as the first two rulers of the Gupta line. While some scholars interpret this title to be a sign of subordination to the Kushan dynasty, others maintain that Sri Gupta, like other rulers who carved out smaller states when the Kushan empire declined, formed an independent kingdom in present-day eastern Uttar Pradesh. His successors are believed to have extended the kingdom further.
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Chandragupta I (reigned c. 319–c. 335 or 350 ce)
Chandragupta I, who extended his kingdom beyond a small state, is considered to be the founder of the Gupta empire. He united the Guptas with the Lichchhavis, an influential clan in north Bihar (and also associated with Nepal), by marriage. This powerful alliance is depicted on coins of the era, which showed the royal couple on one side and a goddess with the legend “Lichchhavaya” on the other. The mention of the Licchavis on royal coins has been interpreted as an indication of their political power at the time. The beginning of the Gupta era (Gupta kala) is thought to be based on either Chandragupta I’s coronation or his marriage, about 319 ce.
Chandragupta I’s empire possibly included parts of modern-day Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal, and he assumed the imperial title maharajadhiraja (“great king of kings”).
Samudragupta (reigned c. 335 ce?–c. 370 ce)
Chandragupta I’s son Samudragupta is thought to have succeeded his father about 335 ce, but some historians suggest that Chandragupta I reigned much longer and that Samudragupta ascended to the throne about 350 ce. Further, coins of that period point to the existence of a possible rival, Kachagupta, indicating that there may have been a struggle over succession after Chandragupta I’s death. Other historians, however, argue that Kacha may have been another name for Samudragupta.
Samudragupta expanded the empire farther. It would seem that his campaigns extended Gupta power in northern and eastern India, through conquest and subordination, and virtually eliminated the oligarchies and the minor kings of central India and the Ganges valley, regions that then came under the direct administrative control of the Guptas.
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Inscriptions on gold coins and on the Allahabad Pillar (locally known as the Prayag Prashasti), first installed by Emperor Ashoka, show Samudragupta to have been especially devoted to the Hindu god Vishnu. The eulogy on the pillar, written in Sanskrit and composed by the court minister and poet Harisena, praises Samudragupta as an ideal king—a conqueror of many, a compassionate leader, and an individual with a sharp intellect and an interest in poetry, music, and art. Historians interpret the glorified accounts of Samudragupta’s achievements on a Mauryan pillar as a deliberate display of power by the Gupta king.
Chandragupta II (reigned c. 375–413/415 ce)
Although Gupta records maintain that Chandragupta II (or Vikramaditya, “Sun of Valor”) was the empire’s third ruler, other evidence indicates the presence of a king called Ramagupta (reigned 370–375 ce), who was likely Chandragupta II’s older brother and may have been killed by Chandragupta II. Chandragupta II is celebrated for extending the empire to Ujjain (in present-day Madhya Pradesh), but his reign became more associated with cultural and intellectual achievements than with military conquest. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Faxian, who spent six years (405–411) in India during Chandragupta II’s reign, spoke highly of the system of government, the means for dispensing charity and medicine, and the goodwill of the people. Chandragupta II’s daughter, Prabhavati Gupta, married into the Vakatakas, which increased Gupta influence over the Deccan.
Kumaragupta, Skandagupta, and the later kings (415–middle of the 6th century ce)
Chandragupta II’s successors—Kumaragupta (reigned 415–454 ce), Skandagupta (reigned 454–467 ce), and others—saw the gradual demise of the empire with the repeated invasions of the Hunas (a branch of the Hephthalites). Competition from the Vakatakas and the rise of Yashodharman of Malwa also contributed to the decline. By the mid-6th century, when the dynasty apparently came to an end, the kingdom had dwindled to a small size.
Administration, society, and culture
Administratively, the Gupta kingdom was divided into provinces, and these in turn were divided into smaller units called pradeshas or vishayas. The provinces were governed by high imperial officers or members of the royal family. A decentralized system of authority is indicated by the composition of Gupta-era municipal boards. City councils had representatives from commerce guilds and artisan groups, and the Guptas, to some extent, encouraged agrarian settlements and commercial activity through land grants and donations. The state earned revenue from taxes on land, trade, and other sources. Agraharas, or land granted to Brahmins, in addition to other royal grants, were a common feature of the Gupta period in general, but there is limited evidence of the Gupta kings engaging in this practice. In addition to their patronage of Brahminism, there are accounts of the Guptas patronizing Buddhism as well. In fact, the monastic center of Nalanda is mentioned in the accounts of Xuanzang, the Chinese pilgrim to India, and may have been built during the Gupta period.
Matrimonial alliances were an important means of strengthening political ties during the Gupta period, as can be gleaned from depictions of the Licchavi alliance of Chandragupta I with Kumaradevi on the “Chandragupta-Kumaradevi type” gold coins found in Mathura, Lucknow, and other places. Prominent women of the Gupta dynasty were mentioned in inscriptions such as that of Samudragupta on the Allahabad Pillar and the Bhitari stone pillar of Skandagupta. Women, however, operated within the confines of caste and regional norms. Education was mostly restricted to upper-caste women and was permitted to a limited degree. Women had limited property rights, and early marriage and sati (a practice where a wife immolates herself on the funeral pyre of her dead husband) were encouraged in some upper castes.
Sanskrit was the dominant language used in courts and royal inscriptions, and the language enjoyed the patronage of the elite. Many scholars believe that Kalidasa, the Sanskrit poet and dramatist who composed such works as Abhijnanashakuntala (“The Recognition of Shakuntala”), Malavikagnimitra (“Malavika and Agnimitra”), and “Meghaduta” (“Cloud Messenger”), was associated with the court of Chandragupta II, or Vikramaditya. Alternate theories, however, exist that the king Vikramaditya usually associated with Kalidasa in fact referred to another king (there are several known Vikramadityas), not the Gupta king Chandragupta II. Other important Sanskrit texts of the period 300 to 600 ce—associated with not just the Gupta dynasty but also other contemporary dynasties such as the Vakatakas, the Hunas, and the Varmans—included the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, some of the Puranas and Dharmashastras, the Kamasutra, and the Panchatantra; some of these likely went through their final development during this period. The Aryabhatiya by Aryabhata and Varahamihira’s Panchasiddhantika were some important works of astronomy and mathematics of the time.
While Sanskrit was largely the language used by the elite, in courts and literature, other languages such as Prakrit were used for various purposes. Prakrit, also associated with Jain literature, could be used as an indicator of social status and gender—in Sanskrit plays of the era, high-status characters often spoke Sanskrit while women and characters of lower social standing spoke Prakrit. The Brahmi script used during this period, known as the Gupta script, was found in numerous Gupta-period seals discovered around excavation sites such as Basarh (Vaishali) about 1903. Excavations in the region in 1950 yielded reused brick structures, terra-cotta items, and seals with Gupta Brahmi inscriptions.
Gold, copper, and iron were mined during the Gupta period. The predominance of intricately designed gold coins points to excellent craftsmanship in the metal. The famous Iron Pillar of Delhi, now located in Mehrauli, Delhi, bears the name of Chandra, identified as Chandragupta II by some scholars. The pillar is a notable work from the Gupta period and is known for being relatively rust-free despite having been created more than 1,600 years ago, about 400 ce. Pearl and precious stones such as quartz and lapis lazuli were popular items for trade with faraway lands in the Gupta period.
Vishnu, his incarnation Varaha, and his mount Garuda; Shiva and his consort Parvati; Durga; and Lakshmi were some key Hindu deities and characters worshipped by the Guptas. The religious complex in the Udayagiri caves in present-day Madhya Pradesh is thought to have been created during the reign of Chandragupta II. The complex houses many forms of Vishnu; other important figures in Hindu mythology, such as Shiva, Durga, and Mahishasura; and a Jain shrine as well.
During the Gupta period Hindu temple architecture was still in its formative years, and the earliest temples housed the murti (image) in a small square cell, the garbhagriha (“womb room”). Later temples included raised plinths and a shikara (spire), as in the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh (in present-day Uttar Pradesh). Typical Gupta-era features of this temple include bird, Kama, and mithuna (couple) motifs and lotus motifs on the doorway and its parts. Friezes recovered from the temple site depict scenes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Vishnu Purana. The Deogarh temple was dedicated to Vishnu, and the temple’s outer and inner walls depict legends of Vishnu. Other stone temples of the Gupta period include the Bhumara Shiva temple and the Buddhist temple at Sanchi, both in present-day Madhya Pradesh. Sarnath and Mathura were important centers of sculpture. Images of Jain Tirthankaras, the Buddha, and Vishnu were sculpted in Mathura in this period.
