Tewkesbury, borough (district), administrative county of Gloucestershire, south-central England, north of the city of Gloucester. The town of Tewkesbury is the administrative centre. Most of the borough belongs to the historic county of Gloucestershire, but the villages of Teddington and Chaceley

Battle of Tewkesbury, (May 4, 1471), in the English Wars of the Roses, the Yorkist king Edward IV’s final victory over his Lancastrian opponents. Edward, who had displaced the Lancastrian Henry VI in 1461, later quarreled with his powerful subject Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, and Warwick in

Tewksbury, town (township), Middlesex county, northeastern Massachusetts, U.S. Located just southeast of Lowell and 21 miles (34 km) north of Boston, the town occupies a marshy lowland between the Concord and Merrimack rivers. Farmers from neighbouring Billerica settled there during the early 18th

John Walter Tewksbury was an American sprinter who won five medals at the 1900 Olympics in Paris. He earned gold medals in the 200-metre race and the 400-metre hurdles, silver medals in the 100- and 60-metre races, and a bronze in the 200-metre hurdles. Tewksbury was a member of the track team at

John Walter Tewksbury was an American sprinter who won five medals at the 1900 Olympics in Paris. He earned gold medals in the 200-metre race and the 400-metre hurdles, silver medals in the 100- and 60-metre races, and a bronze in the 200-metre hurdles. Tewksbury was a member of the track team at

Tewodros II was the emperor of Ethiopia (1855–68) who has been called Ethiopia’s first modern ruler. Not only did he reunify the various Ethiopian kingdoms into one empire, but he also attempted to focus loyalty around the government rather than the Ethiopian church, which he sought to bring under

Sir Vincent Tewson was an English trade union leader and general secretary of the Trades Union Congress (TUC) from 1946 to 1960. Tewson acquired his early organizing experience with the Amalgamated Society of Dyers in Bradford. After distinguished service in World War I, Tewson returned to work for

Sir Vincent Tewson was an English trade union leader and general secretary of the Trades Union Congress (TUC) from 1946 to 1960. Tewson acquired his early organizing experience with the Amalgamated Society of Dyers in Bradford. After distinguished service in World War I, Tewson returned to work for

S.E. Hinton: Other popular novels and film adaptations: …Now (1971), Rumble Fish (1975), Tex (1979), and Taming the Star Runner (1988). Each of those books features a cast of characters who suffer from society’s ills. Young people alienated from their families and from their peers are seen to veer onto criminal paths.

TeX, a page-description computer programming language developed during 1977–86 by Donald Knuth, a Stanford University professor, to improve the quality of mathematical notation in his books. Text formatting systems, unlike WYSIWYG (“What You See Is What You Get”) word processors, embed plain text

textile: Tex system: The tex system, originally devised in 1873, is a universal method developed for the measurement of staple fibre yarns and is also applicable to the measurement of filament yarns. It is based on the weight in grams of one kilometre (3,300 feet) of…

Texaco Inc., former U.S.-based petroleum corporation that was, during the late 20th century, one of the world’s largest oil companies in terms of sales. The name Texaco was officially adopted in 1959. Although the company originally conducted its business ventures wholly within Texas, it expanded

coal utilization: Advanced gasification systems: The Texaco gasifier appears to be the most promising new entrained-bed gasification system that has been developed. In this system, coal is fed into the gasifier in the form of coal-water slurry; the water in the slurry serves as both a transport medium (in liquid form)…

Milton Berle: His hugely successful Texaco Star Theater (1948–54) was credited with popularizing the new medium in the United States; the variety show, noted for its unpredictable live performances, led to a dramatic increase in the number of television sets purchased. Especially popular were skits in which Berle dressed in…

San Antonio: The contemporary city: …conventions and exhibitions; the park’s Institute of Texan Cultures traces nationalities of Texas, and its Tower of the Americas, 750 feet (229 metres) tall, is a city landmark. San Fernando Cathedral (completed 1873) is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishopric. The Marion Koogler McNay Art Museum contains a notable…

Texarkana: dual municipality astride the Texas-Arkansas boundary, U.S. The city also lies near the Louisiana and Oklahoma state lines. First settled in 1874 at the junction of the Cairo and Fulton and the Texas and Pacific railways, it derived its name from Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana.

Texarkana, dual municipality astride the Texas-Arkansas boundary, U.S. The city also lies near the Louisiana and Oklahoma state lines. First settled in 1874 at the junction of the Cairo and Fulton and the Texas and Pacific railways, it derived its name from Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana. The two

Texas, constituent state of the United States of America. It became the 28th state of the union in 1845. Texas occupies the south-central segment of the country and is the largest state in area except for Alaska. The state extends nearly 1,000 miles (1,600 km) from north to south and about the same

Texas A&M University, state university system based in College Station, Texas, U.S., formed in 1948 as an outgrowth of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, which was established in 1871 and opened in 1876. The system includes campuses at Commerce (founded 1889), Kingsville (1925),

Continental Airlines, Inc.: …it was taken over by Texas Air Corporation. The merger incurred heavy debt, and, after bankruptcy proceedings (1983) and reorganization, Continental reduced services by two-thirds. In 1987 other Texas Air subsidiaries—New York Airlines, Inc. (founded 1980), People Express Airlines (1981), and Presidential Airlines (1985)—were merged into Continental Airlines, significantly increasing…

alligator lizard: …largest alligator lizard is the smooth-headed alligator lizard (G. liocephalus), and its body alone can reach 20 cm (8 inches). Although many alligator lizards are dull brown or gray, some are brightly coloured. Cope’s arboreal alligator lizard (A. aurita), for example, is mottled green with scales on the head and…

Texas and Pacific Railway Company, Texas railroad merged into the Missouri Pacific in 1976. Chartered in 1871, it absorbed several other Texas railroads and extended service to El Paso in the west and New Orleans, La., in the east. Under Thomas A. Scott, who was simultaneously president of the

Texas barbecue, seasoned smoked meats—specifically beef brisket, pork ribs, and sausage—associated with Texas. Texas barbecue has a number of influences, including the meat-smoking techniques of 19th-century immigrants from Germany and Czechoslovakia who settled in the central part of the state.

Texas barbecue, seasoned smoked meats—specifically beef brisket, pork ribs, and sausage—associated with Texas. Texas barbecue has a number of influences, including the meat-smoking techniques of 19th-century immigrants from Germany and Czechoslovakia who settled in the central part of the state.

bluebonnet: …most famous bluebonnets are the Texas bluebonnets, which cover immense areas in southern and western Texas like a blue carpet in the spring. They include Lupinus texensis and L. subcarnosus, which are among the most popular wildflowers of the state. The shape of the petals is said to resemble the…

bluegrass: Texas bluegrass (P. arachnifera), mutton grass (P. fendleriana), and plains bluegrass (P. arida) are important western forage grasses. Annual bluegrass (P. annua), a small, light-green species, is a European introduction that has spread throughout North America; it is considered a pest in lawns.

bullet ant: The Texas bullet ant (Neoponera villosa) is an unrelated species native to Texas and Mexico; it also has a painful sting.

Charles Walters: Walters returned to musicals with Texas Carnival (1951), though it was largely forgettable, despite a cast that included some of MGM’s top talent: Esther Williams, Howard Keel, Red Skelton, and Miller. Walters then reunited with Astaire for The Belle of New York (1952), but it failed to match the success…

Theobald Smith: …was carried out (1888–93) on Texas cattle fever. He discovered that the disease is caused by a protozoan parasite (Pyrosoma bigeminum [now called Babesia bigemina]) that is transmitted to uninfected cattle by blood-sucking ticks. This was the first definite proof of the role ticks and other arthropods (including insects) can…

Ed Gein: Books and movies: …Robert Bloch’s powerful 1959 book; The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974), which also drew from the life of Texas serial killer Elmer Wayne Henley; and The Silence of the Lambs (1991), an Oscar-winning adaptation of Thomas Harris’s best-selling novel (1988). Gein was also the subject of Monster: The Ed Gein…

Ed Gein: Books and movies: …Robert Bloch’s powerful 1959 book; The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974), which also drew from the life of Texas serial killer Elmer Wayne Henley; and The Silence of the Lambs (1991), an Oscar-winning adaptation of Thomas Harris’s best-selling novel (1988). Gein was also the subject of Monster: The Ed Gein…

Renée Zellweger: Dazed and Confused and Jerry Maguire: …Chainsaw Massacre (1994; rereleased as Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation). Zellweger’s surprise casting as the love interest of Tom Cruise in Jerry Maguire catapulted her to stardom.

Texas Christian University, private, coeducational institution of higher education in Fort Worth, Texas, U.S. It is affiliated with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). It grants about 14 undergraduate degrees in more than 80 areas and about 14 graduate degrees in more than 30 fields,

Texas City, city, Galveston county, Texas, U.S. It is part of the Galveston–Texas City complex on Galveston Bay. Texas City is a deepwater port on channels to the Gulf of Mexico, and its industrial activities have considerably expanded since World War II to include the production of petrochemicals,

Texas City explosion of 1947, industrial disaster sparked by the fire and explosion of the SS Grandcamp on April 16–17, 1947, in Texas City, Texas. The blast set off a chain of fires as well as a 15-foot (4.5-metre) tidal wave. Between 400 and 600 people were killed, with as many as 4,000 injured.

Sam Houston: …after the adoption of the Texas Declaration of Independence on March 2, 1836). The revolt suffered reverses during the winter, but on April 21, 1836, Houston and a force of roughly 900 Texans surprised and defeated some 1,200 to 1,300 Mexicans under Antonio López de Santa Anna at the Battle…

disparate impact: Evolution of disparate impact theory: …the Supreme Court’s decision in Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs v. Inclusive Communities Project, Inc. (2015), which endorsed an interpretation of the Fair Housing Act that had permitted disparate-impact challenges to allegedly discriminatory housing policies or practices but also articulated new limits on the scope of such actions,…

Agnes de Mille: …Rose for Miss Emily (1971), Texas Fourth (1976), and The Informer (1988). Among her several books are Dance to the Piper (1952), To a Young Dancer (1962), The Book of the Dance (1963), Lizzie Borden: A Dance of Death (1968), and Speak to Me, Dance with Me (1973). She also…

Texaco Inc., former U.S.-based petroleum corporation that was, during the late 20th century, one of the world’s largest oil companies in terms of sales. The name Texaco was officially adopted in 1959. Although the company originally conducted its business ventures wholly within Texas, it expanded

Texas hold’em, a community-card variant of poker in which players attempt to make the best five-card hand of the seven cards that are dealt to them. The card game has similarities to seven-card stud. However, instead of using an exclusive set of seven playing cards to make the best hand, each

Texas Revolution, war fought from October 1835 to April 1836 between Mexico and Texas colonists that resulted in Texas’s independence from Mexico and the founding of the Republic of Texas (1836–45). Although the Texas Revolution was bookended by the Battles of Gonzales and San Jacinto, armed

Texas Instruments Incorporated (TI), American manufacturer of calculators, microprocessors, and digital signal processors with its headquarters in Dallas, Texas. The direct antecedent to the company was founded May 16, 1930, by John Clarence (“Doc”) Karcher and Eugene McDermott to provide

kangaroo rat: The Texas kangaroo rat (D. elator) constructs burrows in disturbed areas along fencerows and pasture roads and around stock corrals, barns, and grain-storage facilities. Recently, accelerated transformation of desert habitats by residential and agricultural development has imperiled several species of kangaroo rat.

Fort Worth: The Texas Motor Speedway (1997), to the north of the city, is one of the nation’s largest sports facilities. The city’s cultural institutions include ballet and opera companies, a symphony orchestra, and several theatres. Recreational facilities include the Fort Worth Zoo, botanical gardens, and several lakes.…

University of North Texas, public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Denton, Texas, U.S. It comprises colleges of arts and sciences, business administration, education, and music; the Robert B. Toulouse School of Graduate Studies; and schools of community service, library and

ocelot: …and one scrubland subspecies, the Texas ocelot (F. p. albescens), is endangered. The hunting of ocelots and the trading of their pelts are prohibited in the United States and most other countries in the animal’s range.

United States Steel Corporation: Diversification: …Oil Company in 1982 and Texas Oil & Gas Corp. in 1986 had given U.S. Steel major interests in the oil and gas industry. The company had also expanded into such industries as mining, chemicals, construction, real estate, and transportation (including railroads, shipping, and shipbuilding).

Bill Hicks: Early life and start in comedy: …of comedians known as the Texas Outlaw Comics, which included rising “scream” comedian Sam Kinison. Upon graduation from high school, Hicks announced that, instead of attending college, he was headed to Los Angeles to pursue a career in comedy. There he performed regularly at the Comedy Store, an influential venue…

Bob Wills: …fiddler, singer, and songwriter whose Texas Playboys popularized western swing music in the 1930s and ’40s.

Austin College: …1930 the college merged with Texas Presbyterian College, a school for women. At Lake Texoma, the college operates a lakeside recreational camp; it also owns three sites in Grayson county that serve as nature preserves and field research stations.

Texas Rangers, American professional baseball team based in Arlington, Texas, that plays in the American League (AL). The Rangers began play in 1961 as the Washington (D.C.) Senators and have won one World Series title (2023) and three AL pennants (2010, 2011, and 2023). The Senators finished in

Texas Rangers, loosely organized military force that policed Texas from the time of their initial organization in the 1830s to their merger with the state highway patrol in 1935. The first Texas Rangers were minutemen hired by settlers as protection against Native American attacks. During the Texas

King Vidor: Early sound features: In 1936 Vidor made The Texas Rangers (1936), an unpretentious well-paced western, with Fred MacMurray and Jack Oakie as ex-bandits who become Rangers and are tasked with finding a former partner-in-crime (Lloyd Nolan).

red oak: The Texas red oak (Q. texana), about 10 m tall, is sometimes considered a shorter variety of the Shumard oak.

Texas Revolution, war fought from October 1835 to April 1836 between Mexico and Texas colonists that resulted in Texas’s independence from Mexico and the founding of the Republic of Texas (1836–45). Although the Texas Revolution was bookended by the Battles of Gonzales and San Jacinto, armed

Behind the Scenes: 12 Real-Life Characters of Texas Rising: Although the History Channel’s Texas Rising miniseries is “inspired” by the true story of the Texas Revolution, it doesn’t purport to tell the whole truth and nothing but the truth. Not that there is anything wrong with taking some literary license in pursuit of additional drama, excitement, and romance—especially…

Lee Harvey Oswald: …secured a job at the Texas School Book Depository.

John Lee Hooker was an American blues singer-guitarist, one of the most distinctive artists in the electric blues idiom. Born into a Mississippi sharecropping family, Hooker learned to play the guitar from his stepfather and developed an interest in gospel music as a child. In 1943 he moved to

Texas Southern University (TSU), public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Houston, Texas, U.S. TSU is a historically Black university, and it grants undergraduate, graduate, and professional degrees within colleges of liberal arts and behavioral sciences, science and technology,

Texas State University, public, coeducational institution of higher education in San Marcos, Texas, U.S. It is part of the Texas State University System. It offers bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees through the Graduate College and colleges of applied arts, business administration,

Texas Southern University (TSU), public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Houston, Texas, U.S. TSU is a historically Black university, and it grants undergraduate, graduate, and professional degrees within colleges of liberal arts and behavioral sciences, science and technology,

Texas State University, public, coeducational institution of higher education in San Marcos, Texas, U.S. It is part of the Texas State University System. It offers bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees through the Graduate College and colleges of applied arts, business administration,

Texas Tech University, public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Lubbock, Texas, U.S. In addition to programs leading to baccalaureate degrees, it offers about 100 master’s and 60 doctoral degree programs. The main campus includes colleges of agricultural sciences and natural

Texas Tech University, public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Lubbock, Texas, U.S. In addition to programs leading to baccalaureate degrees, it offers about 100 master’s and 60 doctoral degree programs. The main campus includes colleges of agricultural sciences and natural

Texas Tower shooting of 1966, mass shooting in Austin, Texas, on August 1, 1966, in which Charles Whitman, a student and ex-Marine, fired down from the clock tower on the campus of the University of Texas, killing 14 people and wounding 31 others (one of whom died years later from complications

Texas v. Johnson, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled (5–4) on June 21, 1989, that the burning of the U.S. flag is a protected form of speech under the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The case originated during the Republican National Convention in Dallas in August 1984,

Texas v. White, (1869), U.S. Supreme Court case in which it was held that the United States is “an indestructible union” from which no state can secede. In 1850 the state of Texas received $10,000,000 in federal government bonds in settlement of boundary claims. In 1861 the state seceded from the

Fort Worth: Texas Christian University (1873), Texas Wesleyan University (1890), Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (1908), and Tarrant County College (1967); the University of Texas at Arlington (1895) is just to the east. The Health Science Center of the University of North Texas is also in the city.

Texas Woman’s University, public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Denton, Texas, U.S. It focuses on liberal arts and professional studies. Texas Woman’s University is divided into the University General Divisions, the Institute of Health Sciences, and the Graduate School. The

Prior to the 1836 declaration of Texan independence from Mexico, the “Lone Star State” had a number of flags. English-speaking settlers and filibusters from the United States hoisted different banners as symbols of their self-declared “republics.” The flag of the “Texan Republic” that James Long

Bonnie Blue flag: History and variants: The Republic of Texas adopted a version of the flag, called the Burnet flag, from 1836 to 1839. Designed by interim president David G. Burnet, this version had a gold five-pointed star on a darker blue background. The use of the single star motif underscored the…

University of Texas, state university system based in Austin, Texas, U.S. Branch campuses are located in Arlington (founded 1895), El Paso (1913), Edinburg (Pan American branch; 1927), Richardson (Dallas branch; 1961), Odessa (Permian Basin branch; 1969), San Antonio (1969), Tyler (1971), and

Larry McMurtry: …series that he continued with Texasville (1987), Duane’s Depressed (1999), When the Light Goes (2007), and Rhino Ranch (2009). McMurtry’s frontier epic, Lonesome Dove (1985; television miniseries 1989), won a Pulitzer Prize in 1986. A sequel, Streets of Laredo, appeared in 1993; Dead Man’s Walk (1995) and Comanche Moon (1997)…

Jeff Bridges: The 1990s brought roles in Texasville (1990), a sequel to The Last Picture Show; The Fisher King (1991), about a bitter radio show host who embarks on a mystical journey to help a homeless man (played by Robin Williams); the touching story of an ex-con dad trying to relate to…

Texcoco, city built in the present-day Valley of Mexico by the Acolhuas, a pre-Columbian people of the Nahuatl-speaking group of tribes, which gained mastery of the valley after the collapse of the Toltec hegemony in the mid-12th century ad. The rulers of Texcoco were the first among Nahuatl tribal

Lake Texcoco, lake in central Mexico. Originally one of the five lakes contained in Anáhuac, or the Valley of Mexico, Texcoco has been drained via channels and a tunnel to the Pánuco River since the early 17th century, until it now occupies only a small area surrounded by salt marshes 2 1 2 mi (4

Battle of Texel: …from the Dutch island of Texel, the French commander, Jean d’Estreés, was under secret orders from Louis XIV to avoid losing ships and so mostly kept out of the battle, retreating at the approach of a small Dutch squadron. The fighting between the Dutch and British fleets was disrupted by…

Battle of Texel, the last engagement of the Anglo-Dutch Wars, fought on August 21, 1673, between the Dutch navy and a combined British and French armada. It demonstrated the indomitable fighting spirit of the Dutch fleet, which was led by Admiral Michiel de Ruyter, and the fiery temperament of

Curry: The town of Texico, on the Texas border, became one of the most violent western towns in the early 20th century. Curry county was founded in 1909 and named for the then governor of New Mexico territory. The county’s residents lived by dry farming until the 1940s, when…

Boğazköy: Excavations: …1834 by the French explorer Charles Texier, who saw Yazılıkaya and those remains of the ancient city that were aboveground. After visits by British and German travelers, it was another Frenchman, Ernest Chantre, who in 1892–93 made the first soundings and found the first cuneiform tablets there. The language in…

Blake Shelton: The Voice and God’s Country: …If I’m Honest (2016), and Texoma Shore (2017)—all topping the country albums chart. The 2019 single “God’s Country” became his biggest hit to date, topping the country chart for seven weeks and garnering a Grammy nomination. The song appeared later that year on the compilation album Fully Loaded: God’s Country.

textual criticism: …criticism, the technique of restoring texts as nearly as possible to their original form. Texts in this connection are defined as writings other than formal documents, inscribed or printed on paper, parchment, papyrus, or similar materials. The study of formal documents such as deeds and charters belongs to the science…

Gabriel Josipovici: …Book of God (1988), and Text and Voice (1992). His novels grew progressively experimental. The first three—The Inventory (1968), Words (1971), and The Present (1975)—were written mostly in dialogue, whereas Migrations (1977) and The Air We Breathe (1981) were composed of a series of images and

word processor: Programs known as text formatters give more control over document layout and appearance, especially for scientific and mathematical documents, than do word processors. On the other hand, these programs, like TeX and LaTeX, are much more difficult to learn, requiring an author to embed formatting commands directly in…

word processor: Programs known as text formatters give more control over document layout and appearance, especially for scientific and mathematical documents, than do word processors. On the other hand, these programs, like TeX and LaTeX, are much more difficult to learn, requiring an author to embed formatting commands directly in…

texting, act of sending short messages with cell phones, usually using the Short Messaging Service (SMS). SMS was developed in the United Kingdom in the late 1980s, and the first text message was sent on December 3, 1992. An SMS commercial service was launched in the United Kingdom in 1995. Text

texting, act of sending short messages with cell phones, usually using the Short Messaging Service (SMS). SMS was developed in the United Kingdom in the late 1980s, and the first text message was sent on December 3, 1992. An SMS commercial service was launched in the United Kingdom in 1995. Text

On September 17, 1787, the United States Constitution—the oldest written constitution still in effect today—was approved and signed in Philadelphia by thirty-nine delegates to the federal convention. The document has been hailed as the most successful work of its kind in modern history. The

history of publishing: The early 20th century: Specialization became frequent, particularly in educational books, as the needs of the new school populations were realized. Some companies, such as Macmillan, in both its British and American houses, had begun to issue schoolbooks almost by chance; then, as their sales grew most profitably, they developed separate departments for school…

Sir John Graham Kerr: His most important works are A Textbook of Embryology with the Exception of Mammalia (1914–19), Zoology for Medical Students (1921), and Evolution (1926).

Louis Valentine Pirsson: …and Rock Minerals (1908) and Textbook of Geology (1915), which by 1929 was the most widely used geology textbook in the world.

structuralism: In his major treatise, A Textbook of Psychology (1909–10), he stated that the only elements necessary to describe the conscious experience are sensation and affection (feeling). The thought process essentially was deemed an occurrence of sensations of the current experience and feelings representing a prior experience.

textile, any filament, fibre, or yarn that can be made into fabric or cloth, and the resulting material itself. The term is derived from the Latin textilis and the French texere, meaning “to weave,” and it originally referred only to woven fabrics. It has, however, come to include fabrics produced

Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union: …men’s clothing industry, with the Textile Workers Union of America, a smaller union founded in 1939. The ACWA was originally formed when militant elements within the United Garment Workers, a relatively conservative union, broke away in 1914 to form their own union under the leadership of Sidney Hillman (q.v.). He…

texting, act of sending short messages with cell phones, usually using the Short Messaging Service (SMS). SMS was developed in the United Kingdom in the late 1980s, and the first text message was sent on December 3, 1992. An SMS commercial service was launched in the United Kingdom in 1995. Text

weaver: …species in Africa is the village weaver (Ploceus, formerly Textor, cucullatus). The baya weaver (P. philippinus) is abundant from Pakistan to Sumatra.

Textron Inc., American multi-industry company that pioneered the conglomerate concept. Its present-day core organization includes aircraft, automotive, and industrial manufacturing segments. The firm was established in 1923 as a textile maker and acquired its present name in 1956. Headquarters are

writing: Literacy and schooling: ” A textual community consisted of a band of believers formed around an interpreter who read and interpreted religious texts. Because the authority of the teacher rested in the text rather than in the church, members of the community came to know certain general truths about texts…

paleography: Textual corruptions: Textual corruptions are another obstacle to correct elucidation. A legal document is certain to have been checked at the time of writing, but one cannot be sure in the case of a literary, philosophical, or theological text. Scribes were fallible, and, if there…

textual criticism, the technique of restoring texts as nearly as possible to their original form. Texts in this connection are defined as writings other than formal documents, inscribed or printed on paper, parchment, papyrus, or similar materials. The study of formal documents such as deeds and