The cost of social security rose substantially in the period after World War II both in real terms and as a proportion of rising gross domestic product. While social security spending amounted to less than 10 percent of the gross national product in nearly all countries in 1950, it had risen to 20 to 30 percent or more in many European countries by 1980. Among the reasons were the extension of the coverage of social security, the widening of the risks covered, the indexing of benefits, and the greater generosity of benefits, which moved up to or near 100 percent replacement of earnings for certain contingencies in some countries. But also of major importance was the maturing of pension schemes. Many of them were recast in the 1940s and â50s, and therefore it was not until the 1980s that people had had the opportunity to contribute on the new basis for all or most of their working lives and thus could draw pensions approaching or reaching the maximum for which these schemes provided. Three further factors were the increasing proportion of aged persons in the population, the decline in pension ages, and the lower proportion of working population.
The costs of health care also rose sharply after World War II. Several reasons contributed to this trend. First, the higher proportion of elderly in the population influenced health care costs as well as the costs of cash benefits. Persons over pension age require two to three times more health care than persons of working age, and the difference is still greater for those over 75, the fastest growing age group. A second factor was the decline in working hours, which meant that more persons (e.g., nurses) were needed in order to staff 24-hour services. A third factor was the continuous development of medical technology, such as new equipment and labour-intensive procedures. Instead of replacing labour, as in industry, innovations in health care normally required more labour for their operation. A further reason was the removal of supply restraints with the provision of more doctors and dentists, a major growth of medical auxiliaries, and the construction of new hospitals, which were more expensive to run. A fifth reason was the financial incentives to supply more services, which underlay many of the systems of paying providers under health insurance.
The final and critical factor that destabilized the finances of social security schemes was the rapid growth of unemployment beginning in the 1970s. In those countries that included unemployment benefits in their social insurance schemes, this phenomenon created both unpredicted higher costs for benefit payments and a loss of revenue from those who were unemployed. The burdens on social assistance programs were also substantial in some countries, coming at a time when unemployed persons were no longer in a position to contribute to tax revenue.
The rapid growth of social security expenditure attracted little attention during the period of rapid economic growth up to 1973. It began to cause concern after the steep rise in oil prices checked economic growth in oil-importing countries. The revenue that financed social security ceased to be buoyant at the same time as new major demands were made on the system. From the late 1970s there was talk of a crisis in social security financing.
By 1980 social security expenditure amounted to 32 percent of the gross national product in Sweden, between 25 and 30 percent in Belgium, Denmark, France, and the Netherlands, and between 20 and 25 percent in Austria, West Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, and Norway. These figures were much higher than for Australia (12 percent), Canada (15 percent), Japan (11 percent), New Zealand (14 percent), the United States (13 percent), or the United Kingdom (18 percent). The cost was much lower in developing countries. High costs are associated with high levels of social security benefits and also with costly systems of providing health care. Some countries, such as Sweden, have allowed health care costs to continue to rise because of the capacity of this service sector of the economy to provide further jobs and thus avoid high rates of unemployment.
The aim in many industrialized market countries came to be the containment of the costs of social security. This requires that program costs not grow faster than the yield of contributions. Various devices were introduced to help secure this result. Systems of indexing benefits and pensions to prices or earnings were revised downward, or adjustments were made less frequently. Pensioners were made to pay contributions toward health-care benefits. In France tax income was brought in to supplement the yield of contributions. In the United Kingdom the earnings-related additions to short-term benefits were abolished.
A series of measures was introduced to limit the cost of health care. Charges and copayments were increased or new charges were introduced. Payment for drugs was introduced in West Germany (1977), Italy (1975), and Portugal (1982). Portugal and Luxembourg joined France and Belgium in charging for consultations with doctors. Charges for hospital care were introduced or extended in Belgium, West Germany, Portugal, and France. By 1984 there was no country in western Europe that provided free care to all its insured population.
Payment systems under health insurance were revised to reduce incentives for overservicing. The aim in West Germany was to pay the doctor more for the consultation and less for medical procedures. Payments for diagnostic tests were sharply reduced in Belgium. As part of the introduction of a national health service in Italy, payment to all general practitioners was changed from fee-for-service to capitation, and the bulk of specialists began to receive full-time or part-time salaries. Budgets for each hospital were introduced in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands, in part to discourage unnecessary retention of patients paying per day of care. Countries in which hospitals were already paid on a budget basis reduced the budgets. In the United States hospitals began to be paid under Medicare and Medicaid according to a schedule of costs for various groups of diagnoses.
Countries maintained strong controls over new hospital construction or expansions, and incentives were created in a number of countries to transfer beds from general use to the care of the long-term sick. Several countries took measures to develop alternatives to hospital care, such as outpatient surgery, outpatient hospitals, nursing homes, residential homes, and home care by domiciliary teams. The United Kingdom closed some 400 hospitals over a period of 10 years. Restrictions on the installation of major new medical equipment went into effect in Belgium and France. By 1955, 10 of the 12 countries of the European Economic Community had instituted quotas for medical schools. In Denmark, France, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain the number of medical students was cut substantially.
Most countries in western Europe introduced restrictions as to what medications a doctor could prescribe under the health service or health insurance system. Most of these countries exercised tight control over pharmaceutical prices and pharmacistsâ margins. New measures were introduced in the effort to control overprescribing.
Social security spending tends to vary between countries in direct proportion to their respective standards of living; in other words, the more affluent a country is, the more it is likely to spend on social security. Spending also tends to vary according to the proportion of elderly people in the population. Third, it varies according to the year in which the first legislation was adopted: countries with older social security programs tend to spend more. There are, of course, exceptions to this pattern. For example, the United States and Japan are low spenders both for their standard of living and for their proportion of elderly, and New Zealand is a low spender for a country that introduced pensions as early as the end of the 19th century.
This type of analysis has been criticized, however, for ignoring private arrangements, particularly employersâ provisions established as part of collective bargaining. Thus, for example, the large role of fringe benefits in Japan helps to explain the relative lack of development of statutory social security. Similarly, the large role of occupational pensions and health insurance negotiated between employers and employees helps to explain the underdevelopment of statutory social security in the United States. Hence it is argued that private and public social security must both be taken into account in any comparison of national programs. In federal countries such as Australia, Canada, Switzerland, and the United States there were constitutional obstacles to adopting social security that led to the private sectorâs playing a larger role.
Political orientation also plays a role in explaining the extent to which social security has been developed in the public sector. After some initial opposition, political parties drawing substantial support from the working classes and the trade unions have promoted the expansion of social security. This includes European Catholic Workersâ movements. Extensions of social security may be introduced by coalition governments with a conservative majority as the price needed to keep the coalition together. The high spending in Scandinavia can be explained by the strong influence of social democratic parties in the period following World War II. Trade unions have had less influence in this direction in Australia and New Zealand. The absence of a working-class party in the United States is part of the explanation of the relative underdevelopment of its social security program.
Some of the trends leading to increased costs are bound to continue. While the number of aged persons in most highly industrialized societies is likely to stabilize, the proportion within it of those over 75 will continue to increase substantially. This has major implications for further increases in the cost of health care. Moreover, pension schemes are still maturing, and there are pressures for further improvements of benefits, particularly to provide sex equality, lower pension ages, and better assistance for persons, particularly women, inadequately provided for previously. On top of all this, costly developments in medical technology continue. If the trend to shorter working hours continues this will also have a further major impact on the cost of health services.
The proportion of aged in the population was expected to start to increase substantially in the second and third decades of the 21st century as the increase in births after World War II becomes reflected in an increase in pensioners. It is this prospect that led the United States to plan for increases in pension ages and the United Kingdom to decide to scale down its second tier earnings-related pension scheme.
The level of contributions and taxes needed to sustain present plans for social security cannot be predicted. While the continuing trend toward a higher number of aged in the population can be safely predicted, the birthrate is much harder to forecast. Of vital importance is the level of unemployment because of its impact on both sides of the balance sheet; reduced unemployment would add to contributions and tax income as well as lower the cost of benefits. Nevertheless, the prospect of a substantial increase in pensioners in the remainder of the 21st century has led to fears in some quarters that the âcompact between generationsâ may not perpetually be honoured. Hence it is argued that the pay-as-you-go method of pension contribution should be replaced by the capitalization method used in early pension schemes and in the private sector. Alternatively it is argued that the privatization of social security pensions would lead to higher savings and investment out of which future pensions could be paid. The disadvantages of either of these approaches are that there would need to be an immediate increase in contributions to provide the planned level of pensions. This could lead to pressure for higher cash earnings. Moreover, the level of pensions would no longer be indexed but would depend on the yield of investments.
