In most countries the major part of the cost of social security is paid for by proportional contributions of earnings from employers and employees. The contributions may be divided equally between employers and employees, except for the whole cost of the occupational injuries scheme, which falls to the employer. Alternatively the employer may pay about twice the amount falling to the employee. There is usually a âceiling,â or level of earnings, beyond which the contribution becomes flat-rate at the level of contribution due on this maximum of earnings, though this is not the case in either Sweden or Switzerland. The maximum varies from around 50 percent above average earnings (e.g., France, Ireland, and Italy) to twice average earnings (e.g., Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States) or higher (Norway). The reason for this may be to prevent insurance contributions from overlapping with high marginal rates of income tax or to leave the replacement of high earnings to the private sector. Some countries also exempt very low earners from contributions or make the employer pay them instead of the employee.
Usually some portion of costs is left to be met from taxation. At the very least the government will stand by to meet any deficit between benefits and contribution income. During the 1970s there was a trend in most countries in western Europe for costs to be shifted away from employers and onto taxes (e.g., Denmark, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, and the United Kingdom) or to employees (Austria, France, and Germany). One reason for the trend toward tax financing was the growth of unemployment financed by social assistance payments.
Countries in which no costs at all fall on taxes include the small schemes in Burundi and Ethiopia and the wider schemes in Malaysia, the Philippines, and Singapore. At the other extreme, however, countries where contributions play a very small role and by far the bulk of costs is covered by taxation are Australia, Denmark, and New Zealand. In the United Kingdom, where the national health service is primarily financed from taxes and social assistance plays a major role, roughly half of the costs are borne by taxes and half by contributions. Several eastern European countries have no employee contributions; instead, their schemes are mainly financed by employers.
The relative merits of financing by contributions or taxes have long been debated. In favour of contributions it is argued that making beneficiaries pay prevents irresponsible increases in benefits and, where there are separate funds, encourages participation by both employees and employers. The payment of contributions also helps to ensure that commitments are honoured. Contributions are administratively easy to collect since the employee has an interest in securing compliance by the employer. The benefits to the employee of paying are clearly identified, while the cost falling on employers may create some incentive to prevent certain occupational risks from arising. Finally, only by earmarking contributions can earnings-related benefits be justified.
The critics of contributions argue that where they are flat-rate or where earnings-related contributions are only payable up to a low ceiling of income they are regressive and constitute a heavy burden on the poor; progressive taxes on income would be preferable, as they vary according to ability to pay and are also levied on investment income. It is also argued that tax-financing enables governments to judge priorities among all fields of public expenditure, and, where it leads to administration by government, this secures closer coordination between social security and other services. In addition, high contributions lead to the growth of the black, or underground, economy. This is a major problem in France and Italy with their high employersâ contributions and leads to a widespread lack of social insurance coverage.
An argument that became more strongly pressed when levels of unemployment rose in the 1970s was that high employersâ contributions made products uncompetitive in world markets, particularly in the case of labour-intensive industries, compared with products from Third World countries where social security is less developed. This was said to sharpen the recession and aggravate unemployment in highly industrialized countries. While it is true that employers might gain a short-term advantage if contributions were lowered, it is much less certain that this gain would be sustained in the long run. What was gained in lower contributions might sooner or later have to be conceded in higher wages and salaries or in other wage costs. If the argument were valid, such countries as Australia, Denmark, or New Zealand, which make little use of employersâ contributions, would be seen to be cornering a heavy share of world trade. The fact that this has not happened reinforces the argument that it is total labour costs, of which social security contributions are only a part, that affect competitiveness.
It has been claimed that high employersâ contributions particularly damage labour-intensive firms and encourage the replacement of labour with capital. In examining this assertion it is relevant first to remember that firms making capital goods also have to pay the same high employersâ contributions and that capital-intensive firms pay them indirectly on raw materials, facilities and equipment, and energy. Second, high employersâ contributions may well cause cash wages to be lower than would otherwise be the case so that total labour costs are not, in fact, increased by employersâ contributions. Third, insofar as high employersâ contributions encourage all firms to use more capital-intensive methods of production, this applies to labour-intensive firms as well. This encouragement of investment may lead to production at lower cost and thus a more competitive position in world markets in the longer run.
While there is a lack of convincing evidence that employersâ contributions are bad for employment, a low ceiling on contributions may itself damage employment. It may discourage offers of part-time work and lead employers to prefer offering overtime to taking on additional workers. This was the view of international experts appointed by the International Labour Office, who therefore recommended in their report of 1984 that contribution ceilings be abolished.
The substitution of taxes for contributions may not relieve poorer workers if the extra taxes come from goods such as tobacco that are consumed more heavily by those with low incomes than those with high incomes in industrialized countries. There is no guarantee that governments would raise the extra revenue from progressive taxes; they may, for example, lower the threshold at which income tax is paid.
The strongest case for contributions is that they justify earnings-related benefits. The strongest case for taxes is that they are used in many countries to make benefits available to all residentsâwhether the benefits be health care, family allowances, or minimum flat-rate pensions. Solutions to the problem of persons not currently covered or inadequately covered by social insurance programs normally require a greater element of tax financing. This has been the trend in many countries.
