Provisions for cash benefits change from time to time in all countries. Thus no description can be fully up-to-date. The information presented here is chiefly based on the returns made by 140 countries to the Social Security Administration of the United States and published in 1985 as Social Security Programs Throughout the World.

Three basic types of state pension schemes predominate. The first is a flat-rate pension with no income test. This may be available on a test of residence only or with the stipulation that the person has been employed for some specific period and has paid requisite contributions. This approach is found mainly in Scandinavia and the Commonwealth countries. The second is an income-tested pension. The third, and most common, type is a pension related in some way to earnings during working life. A further complication is that most countries with a flat-rate pension later developed a second tier of pension rights based on earnings during working life. In other words, the first and third principles are combined.

New Zealand pays a flat rate pension; financed from general taxation, to all who meet residence requirements at age 60. The rate for qualified married couples is twice the rate for single people. The rate of pension is quite a high percentage of average earnings. The Netherlands also provides all residents with a substantial pension but at age 65; it is financed from contributions and reduced if contributions due have not been paid in any year. The supplement for a wife of any age is less than half the rate paid to the husband. In Ireland the pension is less generous and only available to employed persons with minimum contributions paid. Australia combines the first and second approaches with a flat-rate pension from age 70 and an income-tested pension from age 60 for women or from age 65 for men.

Several countries in Scandinavia abandoned an early means-tested pension in favour of a flat-rate pension after World War II because of the unpopularity, complexity, and discouragement to savings of the means test. Later the level of the pension was regarded as inadequate for all except the low-paid, and an earnings-related tier was established on top. Thus flat-rate pensions are provided on tests of residence in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. In three of these schemes a married couple receives substantially less than two single persons. In each case the schemes are supplemented by earnings-related pensions. Canada followed a pattern of development similar to those of the Scandinavian countries. The United Kingdom also gradually moved over to a two-tiered pension, but rights to both tiers depend on contributions paid with credits for absence from work for approved reasons; employers’ schemes can be used to provide a specified minimum upper tier of pension.

The Scandinavian and Canadian two-tiered approaches have a number of advantages. First, non-means-tested basic pensions can be provided to persons without a contribution record—including the disabled, those who have not worked because of family responsibilities, and divorced or separated wives. There is a similar advantage in New Zealand’s scheme. But, in addition, those who have had higher earnings and thus paid higher contributions receive higher pensions with the value of these guaranteed in terms of purchasing power by the government. This reduces the scope for employers’ pension schemes in which the purchasing power of the pension finally paid depends on how far the yield of investments has managed to keep pace with inflation.

Contributory pension schemes, when they were first established, were run on much the same basis as private pension schemes. The level of contributions was calculated by an actuary, and a capital fund was built out of which the pensions could be paid. Even if there were no further contributions, the money was intended to be available to pay out pensions to contributors from the accumulated value of their contributions. This arrangement is known as capitalization or fully funded financing. The first scheme in Germany, enacted in 1889 and based on capitalization, covered most employed persons with earnings up to a specified level. The earnings-related contributions were equal for employees and employers, and there was a subsidy from the state to provide the low-paid with somewhat higher pensions than their contributions warranted. A breach with the principles of private insurance was made to allow workers close to retirement when the scheme went into effect to receive higher pensions than their contributions had earned them. This system of “blanketing in” older workers has frequently been used in other countries when new pension schemes have been established.

It was the experience of rapid inflation after World War II that led to a fundamental change in the financial basis of pensions. Instead of the contribution level’s being sufficient to build up a large capital fund, it was calculated according to the expected cost of pensions due to be paid over the next few years. This pay-as-you-go method of financing statutory pension schemes, which became the normal arrangement, contrasts sharply with private pension schemes. The latter still have to accumulate capital funds because, unlike state schemes, they have no power to compel future generations to join them. Thus state pension schemes are essentially a “compact between generations.” Those at work are compelled to pay to the pensioners of today in expectation, written into the law, that their pensions will be paid by the next generation of workers.

A second major development in pensions began in the late 1950s in response to rapid economic growth. It became recognized that, if pensions were paid out on the basis of the money value of contributions paid in over a working life during which real earnings had been growing rapidly, pensions would amount to a low proportion of earnings at the time of retirement and a still lower proportion of what those at work would be earning 10 or 20 years later. Thus complex formulas were introduced to adjust pensions to the general level of earnings at the time of retirement. West Germany set the pattern in 1957 and was followed by several other European countries—for example, Austria, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. An alternative approach (e.g., in Italy and some eastern European countries) is to base the pension on the last few years of earnings. As this can be unfavourable to workers whose earnings decline in the later years of working life, some countries (e.g., France) base pensions on the best few years of earnings. The former Soviet Union offered an option of the last earning year or the best 5 consecutive years out of the last 10.

The practice of giving low-paid workers higher pensions than were earned by their contributions and those of their employers, which was built into the original German scheme but later abandoned, has been copied in later schemes (e.g., that of the United States). An alternative or further way of helping low-paid workers is to provide a minimum pension, as in Germany or the United States (though in 1981 the U.S. provision was removed for people not yet retired). This particularly helps women, whose average annual income, despite legal inroads against discrimination, remains well below that of men and whose pension contributions are now likely to be interrupted by leave from work for family responsibilities. A much more common provision is an income-tested social pension as, for example, in Belgium or France.

Another development mainly of the period after World War II has been the automatic adjustment of pensions according to an index of prices or in some cases to the average level of earnings, or whichever is more favourable. Some countries have postponed adjustments or modified their formulas, particularly when prices were increasing faster than earnings.