A service is an act of labour or a performance that does not produce a tangible commodity and does not result in the customerâs ownership of anything. Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product. Thus, there are pure services that involve no tangible product (as with psychotherapy), tangible goods with accompanying services (such as a computer software package with free software support), and hybrid product-services that consist of parts of each (for instance, restaurants are usually patronized for both their food and their service).
Services can be distinguished from products because they are intangible, inseparable from the production process, variable, and perishable. Services are intangible because they can often not be seen, tasted, felt, heard, or smelled before they are purchased. A person purchasing plastic surgery cannot see the results before the purchase, and a lawyerâs client cannot anticipate the outcome of a case before the lawyerâs work is presented in court. To reduce the uncertainty that results from this intangibility, marketers may strive to make their service tangible by emphasizing the place, people, equipment, communications, symbols, or price of the service. For example, consider the insurance slogan âYouâre in good hands with Allstate.â
Services are inseparable from their production because they are typically produced and consumed simultaneously. This is not true of physical products, which are often consumed long after the product has been manufactured, inventoried, distributed, and placed in a retail store. Inseparability is especially evident in entertainment services or professional services. In many cases, inseparability limits the production of services because they are so directly tied to the individuals who perform them. This problem can be alleviated if a service provider learns to work faster or if the service expertise can be standardized and performed by a number of individuals or in some cases by software that the consumer purchases or uses online for a fee (as H&R Block, Inc., has done with its network of trained tax consultants and its tax-return software packages and online tax-return service).
The variability of services comes from their significant human component. Not only do humans differ from one another, but their performance at any given time may differ from their performance at another time. The mechanics at a particular auto service garage, for example, may differ in terms of their knowledge and expertise, and each mechanic will have âgoodâ days and âbadâ days. Variability can be reduced by quality-control measures. These measures can include good selection and training of personnel and allowing customers to communicate dissatisfaction (e.g., through customer suggestion and complaint systems) so that poor service can be detected and corrected.
Finally, services are perishable because they cannot be stored. Because of this, it is difficult for service providers to manage anything other than steady demand. When demand increases dramatically, service organizations face the problem of producing enough output to meet customer needs. When a large tour bus unexpectedly arrives at a restaurant, its staff must rush to meet the demand, because the food services (taking orders, making food, taking money, etc.) cannot be âwarehousedâ for such an occasion. To manage such instances, companies may hire part-time employees, develop efficiency routines for peak demand occasions, or ask consumers to participate in the service-delivery process. On the other hand, when demand drops off precipitously, service organizations are often burdened with a staff of service providers who are not performing. Organizations can maintain steady demand by offering differential pricing during off-peak times, anticipating off-peak hours by requiring reservations, and giving or requiring of employees more flexible work shifts.
Business marketing, sometimes called business-to-business marketing or industrial marketing, involves those marketing activities and functions that are targeted toward organizational customers. This type of marketing involves selling goods (and services) to organizations (public and private) to be used directly or indirectly in their own production or service-delivery operations; the drafting and publicizing of white papers, detailing the advantages of a product or producer, are often key components of such marketing. Some of the major industries that comprise the business market are construction, manufacturing, mining, transportation, public utilities, communications, and distribution. One of the key points that differentiates business from consumer marketing is the magnitude of the transactions. For example, in the early 21st century, a Boeing 747 airliner, selling for more than $300 million, could take up to four years to manufacture and deliver once the order was placed. Often a major airline company will order several aircraft at one time, making the purchase price as high as several billion dollars.
Customers for industrial goods can be divided into three groups: user customers, original-equipment manufacturers, and resellers. User customers make use of the goods they purchase in their own businesses. An automobile manufacturer, for example, might purchase a metal-stamping press to produce parts for its vehicles. Original-equipment manufacturers incorporate the purchased goods into their final products, which are then sold to final consumers. Industrial resellers are middlemenâessentially wholesalers but in some cases retailersâwho distribute goods to user customers, to original-equipment manufacturers, and to other middlemen. Industrial-goods wholesalers include mill-supply houses, steel warehouses, machine-tool dealers, paper jobbers, and chemical distributors.
Marketing scholars began exploring the application of marketing to nonprofit organizations in 1969. Since then, nonprofit organizations have increasingly turned to marketing for growth, funding, and prosperity.
Although it is difficult to define ânonprofitâ organizations because of the existence of a number of quasi-governmental organizations, a study in the early 21st century found more than 1.5 million private, nonprofit organizations in the United States. Some experts believe that the way to distinguish between organizations is according to their sources of funding. The three major sources are profits, government revenues (such as grants or taxes), and voluntary donations. In addition, a legally defined nonprofit organization is one that has been granted tax-exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. However, while nonprofit groups can be defined legally, it is more helpful to focus on the specific marketing activities that need to be performed within the organizationâs environment. Museums, hospitals, universities, and churches are all examples of nonprofit organizations. Although many individuals may believe that nonprofit organizations have only a small impact on the economy, the operating expenditures of private nonprofit organizations now represent a significant percentage of the U.S. gross national product. In addition, many of these are substantial enterprises.
Social marketing employs marketing principles and techniques to advance a social cause, idea, or behaviour. It entails the design, implementation, and control of programs aimed at increasing the acceptability of a social idea or practice that would benefit the adoptors or society. Social ideas can take the form of beliefs, attitudes, and values, such as human rights. Whether social marketers are promoting ideas or social practices, their ultimate goal is to alter behaviour. In order to accomplish this behaviour change, social marketers set measurable objectives, research their target groupâs needs, target their âproductsâ to these particular âconsumers,â and effectively communicate their benefits. In addition, social-marketing organizations have to be constantly aware of changes in their environments and must be able to adapt to these changes. One very significant change of environment took place in the early 2000s with the advent of social networking via the Internet, which encompassed blogs, Web sites such as Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn, and instant messaging services such as Twitter. A large proportion of social marketing has since been conducted through these media.
Place marketing employs marketing principles and techniques to advance the appeal and viability of a place (town, city, state, region, or nation) to tourists, businesses, investors, and residents. Among the âplace sellersâ are economic development agencies, tourist promotion agencies, and mayorsâ offices. Place sellers must gain a deep understanding of how place buyers make their purchasing decisions. Place-marketing activities can be found in both the private and public sectors at the local, regional, national, and international levels. They can range from activities involving downtrodden cities trying to attract businesses to vacation spots seeking to attract tourists. In implementing these marketing activities, each locale must adapt to external shocks and forces beyond its control (intergovernmental power shifts, increasing global competition, and rapid technological change) as well as to internal forces and decline cycles.
