The second marketing-mix element is price. Ordinarily companies determine a price by gauging the quality or performance level of the offer and then selecting a price that reflects how the market values its level of quality. However, marketers also are aware that price can send a message to a customer about the product’s presumed quality level. A Mercedes-Benz vehicle is generally considered to be a high-quality automobile, and it therefore can command a high price in the marketplace. But, even if the manufacturer could price its cars competitively with economy cars, it might not do so, knowing that the lower price might communicate lower quality. On the other hand, in order to gain market share, some companies have moved to “more for the same” or “the same for less” pricing, which means offering prices that are consistently lower than those of their competitors. This kind of discount pricing has caused firms in such industries as airlines and pharmaceuticals (which used to charge a price premium based on their past brand strength and reputation) to significantly reevaluate their marketing strategies.

Place, or where the product is made available, is the third element of the marketing mix and is most commonly referred to as distribution. When a product moves along its path from producer to consumer, it is said to be following a channel of distribution. For example, the channel of distribution for many food products includes food-processing plants, warehouses, wholesalers, and supermarkets. By using this channel, a food manufacturer makes its products easily accessible by ensuring that they are in stores that are frequented by those in the target market. In another example, a mutual funds organization makes its investment products available by enlisting the assistance of brokerage houses and banks, which in turn establish relationships with particular customers. However, each channel participant can handle only a certain number of products: space at supermarkets is limited, and investment brokers can keep abreast of only a limited number of mutual funds. Because of this, some marketers may decide to skip steps in the channel and instead market directly to buyers through factory outlets, direct mail, and shopping via the Internet (a significant trend from the late 20th century).

Promotion, the fourth marketing-mix element, consists of several methods of communicating with and influencing customers. The major tools are sales force, advertising, sales promotion, and public relations.

Sales representatives are the most expensive means of promotion, because they require income, expenses, and supplementary benefits. Their ability to personalize the promotion process makes salespeople most effective at selling complex goods, big-ticket items, and highly personal goods—for example, those related to religion or insurance. Salespeople are trained to make presentations, answer objections, gain commitments to purchase, and manage account growth. Some companies have successfully reduced their sales-force costs by replacing certain functions (for example, finding new customers) with less expensive methods.

Advertising includes all forms of paid nonpersonal communication and promotion of products, services, or ideas by a specified sponsor. Advertising appears in such media as print (newspapers, magazines, billboards, flyers), broadcast (radio, television), and Internet, including e-mail and various Web sites. Print advertisements typically consist of a picture, a headline, information about the product, and occasionally a response coupon. Broadcast advertisements consist of an audio or video narrative that can range from short 15-second spots to longer segments known as infomercials, which generally last 30 or 60 minutes. E-mail advertisements are similar in content to print advertisements and contain hyperlinks to the retailer of the product or service. Advertisements on Web sites consist of static or moving pictures and words, sometimes presented in so-called pop-up windows, and brief videos, with or without an audio narrative, along with hyperlinks. A notorious form of advertising over the Internet is spam, consisting of unsolicited commercial messages sent to e-mail accounts, blogs, social networking sites, and cellular telephones.