Reform of the tragic theater

In 1713 Scipione Maffei, a Veronese nobleman and later author of the archaeological and antiquarian guide Verona illustrata (1731–32), produced Merope—a tragedy that met with great success and pointed the way toward reform of the Italian tragic theater. (Merope was subsequently adapted into French by Voltaire.) Between 1726 and 1747 Antonio Conti—an admirer of William Shakespeare—wrote four Roman tragedies in blank verse. It was not until 1775, however, with the success of Vittorio Alfieri’s Cleopatra, that an important Italian tragedian finally emerged. In strong contrast with the melodrammi, or musical dramas, of Pietro Metastasio and the librettist Paolo Rolli, Alfieri’s tragedies are harsh, bitter, and unmelodious. He chose classical and biblical themes, and, through his hatred of tyranny and love of liberty, he aspired to move his audience with magnanimous sentiments and patriotic fervor. He is at his most profound in Saul (1782) and Mirra (1786). Alfieri’s influence in the Romantic period and the Risorgimento was immense, and, like Carlo Goldoni, he wrote an important autobiography, which gives a revealing account of his struggles to provide Italy with a corpus of drama comparable to that of other European nations.

Goldoni’s reform of comedy

Metastasio’s reform of the operatic libretto was paralleled in the mid-18th century by Goldoni’s reform of comedy. Throughout the 17th century the commedia dell’arte—a colorful pantomime of improvisation, singing, mime, and acrobatics, often performed by actors of great virtuosity—had gradually replaced regular comedy, but by the early 18th century it had degenerated into mere buffoonery and obscenity with stereotyped characters (maschere, “masks”) and stale mannerisms. The dialogue was mostly improvised, and the plot—a complicated series of stage directions, known as the scenario—dealt mainly with forced marriages, star-crossed lovers, and the intrigues of servants and masters. Goldoni succeeded in replacing this traditional type of theater with written works in which wit and vigor are especially evident when the Venetian scene is portrayed in a refined form of the local dialect. Perhaps because of his prolific output, his work has sometimes been thought of as lacking in depth. His social observation is acute, however, and his characters are beautifully drawn. La locandiera (1753; “The Innkeeper”; Eng. trans. Mirandolina), with its heroine Mirandolina, a protofeminist, has things to say about class and the position of women that can still be appreciated today. Goldoni’s rival and bitter controversialist, fellow Venetian Carlo Gozzi (the reactionary brother of the more liberal journalist Gasparo), also wrote comedies, satirical verse, and an important autobiography. His Fiabe teatrali (1772; “Theatrical Fables”) rely on fantasy and are often satirical. Among them are L’amore delle tre melarance (The Love for Three Oranges), later made into an opera by Sergey Prokofiev, and the original Turandot, later set to music by Giacomo Puccini.

The world of learning

Giambattista Vico, Ludovico Antonio Muratori, Apostolo Zeno, and the already mentioned Scipione Maffei were writers who reflected the awakening of historical consciousness in Italy. Muratori collected primary sources for the study of the Italian Middle Ages. Vico, in his Scienza nuova (1725–44; The New Science), investigated the laws governing the progress of the human race and from the psychological study of man endeavored to infer the laws by which civilizations rise, flourish, and fall. Giovanni Maria Mazzuchelli and Gerolamo Tiraboschi devoted themselves to literary history. Literary criticism also attracted attention; Gian Vincenzo Gravina, Vico, Maffei, Muratori, and several others, while continuing to advocate the imitation of the classics, realized that such imitation should be cautious and thus anticipated critical standpoints that were later to come into favor.

The Enlightenment (Illuminismo)

With the end of Spanish domination and the spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment from France, political reforms were gradually introduced in various parts of Italy. The new spirit of the times led people—mainly of the upper middle class—to enquire into the mechanics of economic and social laws. The ideas and aspirations of the Enlightenment as a whole were effectively voiced in such organs of the new journalism as Pietro Verri’s periodical Il Caffè (1764–66; “The Coffeehouse”). A notable contributor to Il Caffè was the philosopher and economist Cesare Beccaria, who in his pioneering book Dei delitti e delle pene (1764; On Crimes and Punishments) made an eloquent plea for the abolition of torture and the death penalty.

More than anyone else, poet Giuseppe Parini seems to have embodied the neoclassical literary revival of the 18th century. In Il giorno (published in four parts, 1763–1801; “The Day”), an ambitious but unfinished social satire of inherited wealth and nobility, he described a day in the life of a young Milanese patrician and revealed, with masterly irony, the irresponsibility and futility of a whole way of life. His Odi (1795; “Odes”), which are imbued with the same spirit of moral and social reform, are among the classics of Italian poetry.

The satire of the blank verse Sermoni (1763; “Sermons,” modeled on Horace) by the “melancholy” Gasparo Gozzi (elder brother of Carlo) is less pungent, though directed at similar ends, and in his two periodicals—La Gazzetta Veneta and L’Osservatore—he presented a lively chronicle of Venetian life and indicated a practical moral with much good sense. Giuseppe Baretti—an extremely controversial figure who published a critical journal called La Frusta Letteraria (“The Literary Whip”), in which he castigated “bad authors”—had learned much through a lengthy sojourn in England, where his friendship with Samuel Johnson helped to give independence and vigor, if not always accuracy, to his judgments. Viaggi di Enrico Wanton (1749–64; “Travels of Enrico Wanton”), a philosophical novel by the Venetian Zaccaria Seriman, which tells of an imaginary voyage in the manner of Jonathan Swift and Voltaire, was the most all-embracing satire of the time.