History of Germany

Introduction & Top Questions
Ancient history
- Coexistence with Rome to 350 ce
- The migration period
Merovingians and Carolingians
- Merovingian Germany
- The rise of the Carolingians and Boniface
- Charlemagne
- The emergence of Germany
  - The kingdom of Louis the German
  - Rise of the duchies
Germany from 911 to 1250
- The 10th and 11th centuries
  - Conrad I
  - The accession of the Saxons
  - The eastern policy of the Saxons
  - Dukes, counts, and advocates
  - The promotion of the German church
  - The Ottonian conquest of Italy and the imperial crown
  - The Salians, the papacy, and the princes, 1024–1125
    - Papal reform and the German church
    - The discontent of the lay princes
    - The civil war against Henry IV
    - Henry V
- Germany and the Hohenstaufen, 1125–1250
  - Dynastic competition, 1125–52
  - Colonization of the east
  - Hohenstaufen policy in Italy
  - The fall of Henry the Lion
  - Hohenstaufen cooperation and conflict with the papacy, 1152–1215
  - Frederick II and the princes
  - The empire after the Hohenstaufen catastrophe
Germany from 1250 to 1493
- 1250 to 1378
  - The extinction of the Hohenstaufen dynasty
  - The Great Interregnum
  - The rise of the Habsburgs and Luxembourgs
    - Rudolf of Habsburg
    - Adolf of Nassau
    - Albert I of Habsburg
    - Henry VII of Luxembourg
  - The growth of territorialism under the princes
  - Constitutional conflicts in the 14th century
    - Charles IV and the Golden Bull
    - Decline of the German monarchy
  - The continued ascendancy of the princes
    - Southern Germany
    - Central Germany
    - Northern Germany
    - Eastern Germany
    - Continued dispersement of territory
- 1378 to 1493
  - Internal strife among cities and princes
    - Wenceslas
    - Rupert
    - Sigismund
  - The Hussite controversy
    - Jan Hus
    - The Hussite wars
  - The Habsburgs and the imperial office
    - Albert II
    - Frederick III
  - Developments in the individual states to about 1500
    - The princes and the Landstände
    - The growth of central governments
  - German society, economy, and culture in the 14th and 15th centuries
    - Transformation of rural life
    - The nobility
    - Urban life
    - The decline of the church
    - Trade and industry
    - Cultural life
Germany from 1493 to c. 1760
- Reform and Reformation, 1493–1555
  - The empire in 1493
  - Imperial reform
  - The Reformation
  - Imperial election of 1519 and the Diet of Worms
  - The revolution of 1525
  - Lutheran church organization and confessionalization
  - Religious war and the Peace of Augsburg
- The confessional age, 1555–1648
  - German society in the later 1500s
  - Religion and politics, 1555–1618
  - The Thirty Years’ War and the Peace of Westphalia
- Territorial states in the age of absolutism
  - The empire after Westphalia
  - The consolidation of Brandenburg-Prussia and Austria
  - The age of Louis XIV
  - The contest between Prussia and Austria
Germany from c. 1760 to 1815
- Further rise of Prussia and the Hohenzollerns
- The cultural scene
- Enlightened reform and benevolent despotism
- The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era
  - End of the Holy Roman Empire
  - Period of French hegemony in Germany
  - The Wars of Liberation
- Results of the Congress of Vienna
The age of Metternich and the era of unification, 1815–71
- Reform and reaction
- Evolution of parties and ideologies
- Economic changes and the Zollverein
- The revolutions of 1848–49
- The 1850s: years of political reaction and economic growth
- The 1860s: the triumphs of Bismarck
  - The defeat of Austria
  - Bismarck’s national policies: the restriction of liberalism
  - Franco-German conflict and the new German Reich
Germany from 1871 to 1918
- The German Empire, 1871–1914
  - Domestic concerns
  - The economy, 1870–90
  - Foreign policy, 1870–90
  - Politics, 1890–1914
  - The economy, 1890–1914
  - Foreign policy, 1890–1914
- World War I
Germany from 1918 to 1945
- The rise and fall of the Weimar Republic, 1918–33
  - Defeat of revolutionaries, 1918–19
  - The Treaty of Versailles
  - The Weimar constitution
  - Years of crisis, 1920–23
  - The Weimar Renaissance
  - Years of economic and political stabilization
  - The end of the republic
- The Third Reich, 1933–45
  - The Nazi revolution
  - The totalitarian state
  - Foreign policy
  - World War II
The era of partition
- Allied occupation and the formation of the two Germanys, 1945–49
  - Formation of the Federal Republic of Germany
  - Formation of the German Democratic Republic
- Political consolidation and economic growth, 1949–69
- Ostpolitik and reconciliation, 1969–89
The reunification of Germany
- Helmut Kohl and the struggles of reunification
- Chancellorship of Gerhard Schröder (1998–2005)
- The Merkel administration (2005–21)
- The chancellorship of Olaf Scholz (2021–25)

References & Edit History Related Topics

Images & Videos

Political map of Germany showing state boundaries, major cities, and neighboring countries including Denmark, Poland, Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. A small inset locator map in the top left highlights Germany's position within Europe.

Map showing the maximum territorial extent of the Roman Empire in AD 117, shaded in yellow, spanning from western Europe and North Africa to the Near East. Major rivers and seas are labeled, and various symbols mark the locations of Roman colonies and municipia established during the Pre-Caesarian, Caesarian, and Augustan periods. The boundary at the death of Emperor Trajan is highlighted.

Historical map showing the division of the Frankish kingdom among the sons of Clovis after his death in 511. The map uses different colors to indicate territories ruled by Theodoric I, Clodomir, Childebert I, and Chlotar I, as well as undetermined areas, within the broader outline of the Frankish kingdom at Clovis's accession. Major cities and neighboring kingdoms such as the Visigothic Kingdom and Ostrogothic Kingdom are also labeled.

Historical map of Western Europe showing the Frankish domains during the time of Charles Martel, with approximate boundaries. The map uses color shading to distinguish regions of Neustria, Austrasia, Burgundy, and dependent territories, covering areas that now include parts of France, Germany, the Low Countries, and northern Italy, and labels major neighboring kingdoms and regions.

Charlemagne and Leo III

Map of Europe about 800 CE showing the extent of the Frankish kingdom under Charlemagne in light purple, covering much of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, and neighboring regions. Areas inhabited by Slavic peoples who were tributary to Charlemagne are shaded in a darker purple to the east of the Frankish kingdom, including groups such as the Bohemians, Moravians, and Croats. Major cities, rivers, and neighboring kingdoms are labeled for context.

Who Was Widukind, Leader of the Saxons?

Historical map showing the regions of Germany in the 10th and 11th centuries, with color-coded territories such as Saxony, Bavaria, Swabia, Lorraine, Franconia, and Carinthia. The map includes major cities, bishoprics, archbishoprics, and neighboring areas like France, Bohemia, and Hungary, highlighting the political divisions and ecclesiastical centers of the era.

History of Germany: References & Edit History

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Article Contributors

Primary Contributors

Karl A. Schleunes
Henry Ashby Turner
Kenneth Barkin
Charles Calvert Bayley
Lawrence G. Duggan
Patrick J. Geary
James J. Sheehan
Peter John Heather
K.J. Leyser
John Michael Wallace-Hadrill
Theodore S. Hamerow
Gerald Strauss
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Article History

Type	Description	Contributor	Date
	Updated for the chancellorship of Friedrich Merz.	Scott Spires	Oct 09, 2026
	Modified link of Web site: History World - History of Germany.	Grace Young	Jun 12, 2026
	Add new Web site: Brandeis University - About Germany.	Gloria Lotha	Apr 17, 2025
	Changed spelling of “anti-Semitism” to “antisemitism.”	Mindy Johnston	Mar 06, 2025
	Add new Web site: GlobalSecurity.org - German History.	Emily Rodriguez	Feb 13, 2025
	Add new Web site: European Route of Industrial Heritage - Germany.	Grace Young	Nov 08, 2024
	Add new Web site: San Jos� State University - The Economic History of Germany.	Grace Young	Jul 03, 2024
	Add new Web site: Anne Frank House - Germany 1933: from democracy to dictatorship.	Grace Young	May 25, 2024
	Add new Web site: BBC News - Germany profile - Timeline.	Gloria Lotha	Jan 11, 2024
	New article added.	Michael Ray	Sep 21, 2023