Old Testament literature

The first section (chapters 1–15) begins with the story of Samuel’s birth, after his mother Hannah (one of the two wives of the Ephraimite Elkanah) had prayed at the shrine at Shiloh, the center of the tribal confederacy, for a son. She vowed that, if she bore a son, he would be dedicated to Yahweh for lifetime service as a Nazirite, as indicated by the words “and no razor shall touch his head.”

Three years after she had borne a son, whom she named Samuel—which is interpreted “Asked of God,” a phrase that fits the meaning of Saul’s name but may actually mean “El Has Heard”—Hannah took the boy to the shrine at Shiloh. Hannah’s song of exultation (chapter 2, verses 1–10) probably became the basis of the form and content of the Magnificat, the song that Mary, the mother of Jesus, sang in Luke, chapter 1, verses 46–55, in the New Testament. Eli, the priest at Shiloh (who had heard Hannah’s vow), trained the boy to serve Yahweh at the shrine, which Samuel’s mother and father visited annually. The sons of Eli, Hophni and Phinehas, are depicted as corrupt, misusing their positions as servants of the shrine to take offerings the people gave to Yahweh for their own gratification, in contrast to Samuel, who “continued to grow in stature and favor with the Lord and with men.” Because the sons of Eli failed to heed the admonition of their father, the house of Eli was condemned by a “man of God,” who told Eli that his family was to lose its position of trust and power. This condemnation, an interruption of the later source, is the Deuteronomic historian’s answer as to why Abiathar, a priest of the family of Eli at the time of David, was excluded from the priesthood at Jerusalem, which became the central shrine of the monarchy.

While a youth (about 12 years old), Samuel experienced a revelation from Yahweh in the shrine at night. First going to Eli three times after hearing his name called, Samuel responded to Yahweh at Eli’s suggestion. What was revealed to him was the fall of the house of Eli, a message that Samuel hesitatingly related to Eli. After this religious experience, Samuel’s reputation as a prophet of Yahweh increased.

In chapter 4 is an account of the fall of Shiloh and the loss of the ark of the Covenant to the Philistines. Leaving the ark, the symbol of Yahweh’s presence, at Shiloh, the Israelites go out to battle against the Philistines near the Mediterranean coast but are defeated. The Israelites return to Shiloh for the ark; but even though they carry it back to the battleground, they are again defeated at great cost—the sons of Eli are killed, and the ark is captured by the enemy. When Eli, old and blind, hears the news of the disaster, he falls over backward in the chair on which he is sitting, breaks his neck, and dies. The wife of his son Phinehas gives birth to a son at this time; and, upon hearing of what had happened to Israel and her family, names the boy Ichabod, meaning “where is the glory?”—because, as she says, “The glory has departed from Israel.”

Though the Philistines had captured the ark, they eventually discovered that it did not bring them good fortune. Their god Dagon, an agricultural fertility deity probably meaning “grain,” fell to the ground whenever the ark was placed in close proximity to it; and, even more calamitous to them, the Philistines suffered from “tumors,” probably the bubonic plague, wherever they carried the ark. After experiencing such disasters for seven months, the Philistines returned the ark to Beth-shemesh in Israelite territory, along with a guilt offering of five golden tumors and five golden mice carried in a cart drawn by two cows. Because many Israelite men in Beth-shemesh also died—“because they looked into the ark of the Lord”—the ark was taken to Kiriath-jearim (the “forest of martyrs” in modern Israel), where it was placed in the house of Abinadab, whose son Eleazar was consecrated to care for it. The ark was not returned to Shiloh, probably because that shrine center had been destroyed, along with other Israelite towns, by the Philistines.

In chapter 7, verse 3, to chapter 12, verse 25, the Deuteronomic historian depicts the way in which Samuel assumed leadership as judge and Covenant mediator of Israel. The Philistines continued to oppress Israel, though under Samuel’s leadership the Israelites were able to reconquer territory lost to their western enemies. When Samuel grew old, his sons were trained to take his place; but they—like the sons of Eli—were corrupt (“they took bribes and perverted justice”), so that the Israelites demanded another form of government—a monarchy. Samuel attempted to dissuade them, pointing out that if they had a highly centralized form of government (i.e., a monarchy), they would have to give up much of their freedom and would be heavily taxed in goods and services. Samuel obeyed both the elders of the people, who demanded a king, and Yahweh, who said, “make them a king.”