New Testament literature

Luke is the third in order of the canonical gospels, which, together with Acts, its continuation, is dedicated by Luke to the same patron, “most excellent” Theophilus. Theophilus may have been a Roman called by a title of high degree because he is an official or out of respect; or he may have been an exemplification of the Gentile Christian addressees of the Lucan Gospel. The account in Luke–Acts is for the purpose of instruction and for establishing reliability by going back to the apostolic age. The very style of this preface follows the pattern of Greek historiography, and thus Luke is called the “historical” Gospel. Historically reliable information cannot be expected, however, because Luke’s sources were not historical; they rather were embedded in tradition and proclamation. Luke is, however, a historian in structuring his sources, especially in structuring his chronology into periods to show how God’s plan of salvation was unfolded in world history. That he uses events and names is secondary to his intention, and their historical accuracy is of less importance than the schematization by which he shows Jesus to be the Savior of the world and the church in its mission (Acts) to be part of an orderly progress according to God’s plan.

The sources of the Gospel are arranged in the service of its theological thrust with definite periodization of the narrative. Approximately one-third of Luke is from Mark (about 60 percent of Mark); 20 percent of Luke is derived from Q (sometimes arranged with parts of L). Almost 50 percent is from Luke’s special source (L), especially the infancy narratives of John the Baptist and Jesus, and parables peculiar to Luke (e.g., the prodigal son, the good Samaritan, the rich fool). L material is also interwoven into the Passion narrative. While Matthew structured similar teaching materials in his five discourses, Luke places them in an extensive travel account that takes Jesus from Galilee to Judaea via Jericho to Jerusalem. This is similar to the ways in which Acts is structured on the principle of bringing the word from Jerusalem to Rome (see below).

The author has been identified with Luke, “the beloved physician,” Paul’s companion on his journeys, presumably a Gentile (Col. 4:14 and 11; cf. II Tim. 4:11, Philem. 24). There is no Papias fragment concerning Luke, and only late-2nd-century traditions claim (somewhat ambiguously) that Paul was the guarantor of Luke’s Gospel traditions. The Muratorian Canon refers to Luke, the physician, Paul’s companion; Irenaeus depicts Luke as a follower of Paul’s gospel. Eusebius has Luke as an Antiochene physician who was with Paul in order to give the Gospel apostolic authority. References are often made to Luke’s medical language, but there is no evidence of such language beyond that to which any educated Greek might have been exposed. Of more import is the fact that in the writings of Luke specifically Pauline ideas are significantly missing; while Paul speaks of the death of Christ, Luke speaks rather of the suffering, and there are other differing and discrepant ideas on Law and eschatology. In short, the author of this gospel remains unknown.

Luke can be dated c. 80. There is no conjecture about its place of writing, except that it probably was outside of Palestine because the writer had no accurate idea of its geography. Luke uses a good literary style of the Hellenistic Age in terms of syntax. His language has a “biblical” ring already in its own time because of his use of the Septuagint style; he is a Greek familiar with the Septuagint, which was written for Greeks; he seldom uses loanwords and repeatedly improves Mark’s wording. The hymns of chapters 1 and 2 (the Magnificat, beginning “My soul magnifies the Lord”; the Benedictus, beginning “Blessed be the Lord God of Israel”; the Nunc Dimittis, beginning “Now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace”) and the birth narratives of John the Baptist and Jesus either came from some early oral tradition or were consciously modelled on the basis of the language of the Septuagint. These sections provide insight into the early Christian community, and the hymns in particular reflect the Old Testament psalms or the Thanksgiving Psalms from Qumrān. Though on the whole Matthew is the Gospel most used for the lectionaries, the Christmas story comes from Luke. The “old age” motif of the birth of John to Elizabeth also recalls the Old Testament birth of Samuel, the judge. All the material about John the Baptist, however, is deliberately placed prior to that of Jesus. When Mary, the mother of Jesus, visits Elizabeth, Jesus’ superiority to John is already established. The Davidic royal tradition is thus depicted as superior to the priestly tradition.

Writing out of the cultural tradition of Hellenism and that of Jewish ʿanawim piety—i.e., the piety of the poor and the humble entertaining messianic expectations—Luke has “humanized” the portrait of Jesus. Piety and prayer (his own and that of others) are stressed. Love and compassion for the poor and despised and hatred of the rich are emphasized, as is Jesus’ attitude toward women, children, and sinners. In the Crucifixion scene, the discussion between the robbers and Jesus’ assurance that one of them would be with him in Paradise, as well as the words, “Father, into thy hands I commit my spirit!”—which are in contrast to the cry of dereliction in Mark and Matthew—all point toward the paradigm of the truly pious man. Parables peculiar to Luke—among which are those of the good Samaritan, the importunate friend, the lost coin, and the prodigal son—have an element of warmth and tenderness. Thus, Luke “civilizes” the more stark eschatological emphasis of Mark (and Matthew), leading the way, perhaps, to a lessening of eschatological hopes in a time in which the imminent Parousia was not expected but pushed into the distant future.

The interplay between Luke and Acts reveals Luke’s answer to the coming of the Kingdom. Once the church has the Holy Spirit, the delay of the Parousia has been answered for a time. Thus, Luke divides history into three periods: (1) the end of the prophetic era of Israel as a preparation for revelation, with John the Baptist as the end of the old dispensation; (2) the revelation of Jesus’ ministry as the center of time—with Satan having departed after the temptation and, until he once again appears, entering into Judas to betray Jesus; and (3) the beginning of the period of the church after Jesus’ Passion and Resurrection.

Consistent with this schematization, John the Baptist’s arrest occurs before Jesus’ Baptism, though it is placed later in Mark and Matthew. From the beginning, the rule of the Spirit is a central theme, important in healing, the ministry, the message, and the promise of the continued guidance of the Spirit in the age of the church, pointing toward part two of Luke’s work, the book of Acts of the Apostles, in which Pentecost (the receiving of the Holy Spirit by 120 disciples gathered together the 50th day after Easter) is a decisive event.

Just as Luke arranges his Gospel to show the divine plan of salvation in historical periodization, so he orders its structure in accordance with a geographical scheme. Chapter 1 (verse 8) of Acts provides the framework: after the coming of the Spirit, the church will witness in Jerusalem, in all Judaea and Samaria, and then to the end of the inhabited world. These places foreshadow the church’s mission. The end of the old dispensation takes place in Jerusalem and its environs. The Resurrection appearances in Luke are placed in Jerusalem (Mark, Matthew, and John point toward Galilee). Jerusalem is also the place of the beginning of the church, and the old holy place thus becomes the center of the new holy community. The necessity of suffering was made clear and interpreted as the fulfillment of prophecy. Rejection by people from his old home, Nazareth, and by Jewish religious leaders corresponds to the beginning of the ministry to the Gentiles—to the end of the earth.

Luke’s account of the Crucifixion heightens the guilt of the Jews, adding a trial and mockery by Herod Antipas. The Crucifixion in Luke is interpreted as an anticipatory event: that the Christ must suffer by means of death before entering into glory. Jesus’ death, therefore, is not interpreted in terms of an expiatory redemptive act. The centurion who saw the event praised God and called Jesus a righteous man, thus describing his fate as that of a martyr, but with no special meaning for salvation. The link between past salvation history and the period of the church is through the Spirit; salvation history continues in Acts.