Old Testament literature

Hosea

The Book of Hosea, the first of the canonical Twelve (Minor) Prophets, was written by Hosea (whose name means “salvation,” or “deliverance”), a prophet who lived during the last years of the age of Jeroboam II in Israel and the period of decline and ruin that followed the brief period of economic prosperity. The Assyrians were threatening the land of Israel and the people of the Covenant acted as though they were oblivious to the stipulations of their peculiar relation to Yahweh. The Book of Hosea is a collection of oracles composed and arranged by Hosea and his disciples. Like his contemporary Amos, the great prophet of social justice, Hosea was a prophet of doom; but he held out a hope to the people that the Day of Yahweh contained not just retribution but also the possibility of renewal. His message against Israel’s “spirit of harlotry” was dramatically and symbolically acted out in his personal life.

The Book of Hosea may be divided into two sections: (1) Hosea’s marriage and its symbolic meaning (chapters 1–3); and (2) judgments against an apostate Israel and hope of forgiveness and restoration (chapters 4–14).

In the first section, Hosea is commanded by Yahweh to marry a prostitute by the name of Gomer as a symbol of Israel’s playing the part of a whore searching for gods other than the one true God. He is to have children by her. Three children are born in this marriage. The first, a son, is named Jezreel, to symbolize that the house of Jehu will suffer for the bloody atrocities committed in the Valley of Jezreel by the founder of the dynasty when he annihilated the house of Omri. The second, a daughter, is named Lo Ruḥama (Not pitied), to indicate that Yahweh was no longer to be patient with Israel, the northern kingdom. The third child, a son, is named Lo ʿAmmi (Not my people), signifying that Yahweh was no longer to be the God of a people who had refused to keep the Covenant. In chapter 2, Hosea voiced what probably was a divorce formula—“she is not my wife, and I am not her husband”—to indicate that he had divorced his faithless wife Gomer, who kept “going after other lovers.” The deeper symbolism is that Israel had abandoned Yahweh for the cult of Baal, celebrating the “feast days of Baal.” Just as Yahweh will renew his Covenant with Israel, however, Hosea buys a woman for a wife—probably Gomer. The woman may have been a sacred prostitute in a Baal shrine, a concubine, or perhaps even a slave. He confines her for a period of time so that she will not engage in any attempt to search for other paramours and thus commit further adulteries.

The second section, chapters 4–14, does not refer to the marriage motif; but the imagery and symbolism of marriage constantly recur. The Israelites, in “a spirit of harlotry,” have gone astray and have left their God. Their infidelity emphasized their lack of trustworthiness and real knowledge of love, a love that could not be camouflaged by superficial worship ceremonies. Thus, Hosea emphasized two very significant theological terms: ḥesed, or “Covenant love,” and “knowledge of God.” In attacking the superficiality of much of Israel’s worship, Yahweh, through Hosea, proclaimed: “For I desire steadfast (Covenant) love and not sacrifice, the knowledge of God, rather than burnt offerings.” Because they have broken Yahweh’s Covenant and transgressed his law, however, the Lord’s anger “burns against them.” For “they sow the wind and they shall reap the whirlwind.” Israel will be punished for its rebellion and iniquities, but Hosea’s message holds out the hope that the holiness of Yahweh’s love—including both judgment and mercy—will effect a triumphant return of Israel to her true husband, Yahweh.

Joel

The Book of Joel, the second of the Twelve (Minor) Prophets, is a short work of only three chapters. The dates of Joel (whose name means “Yahweh is God”) are difficult to ascertain. Some scholars believe that the work comes from the Persian period (539–331 bce); others hold that it was written soon after the fall of Jerusalem in 586 bce. His references to a locust plague may refer to an actual calamity that occurred; the prophet used the situation to call the people to repentance and lamentation, perhaps in connection with the festival of the New Year, the “Day of Yahweh.” “ ‘Yet even now,’ says the Lord, ‘return to me with all your heart, with fasting, with weeping, and with mourning; and rend your hearts and not your garments.’ ” Some scholars, however, believe that the plague of locusts refers to the armies of a foreign power (Babylonia?). In the remaining section of the book (chapter 2, verse 30 to chapter 3, verse 21), Joel, in apocalyptic imagery, predicts the judgment of the nations—especially Philistia and Phoenicia—and the restoration of Judah and Jerusalem.