Iliad

Iliad, ancient Greek epic poem in 24 books traditionally attributed to the poet Homer and was likely composed in the mid-8th to early 7th century bce. The title derives from Ilios, another name for Troy. According to Greek mythology, Helen, wife of the Spartan king Menelaus, had fled to Troy with Paris, son of the Trojan king Priam, which led to the Trojan War. Although the Iliad takes the Trojan War as its subject, it concentrates only on a brief period in its final year, with the Greek warrior Achilles as its primary focus.

Widely considered the first major work of European literature and a pillar of Western civilization, the epic originates from a centuries-old oral storytelling tradition, in which singers inherited familiar phrases, diction, scenes, and plots but could reshape them in performance. The composition evolved as the ancient bards performed the poems. They used a specific rhythmic meter, called dactylic hexameter, and repeated formulaic phrases to help them sing the massive tale from memory. Its cultural legacy is immense. It fostered ancient Greek ideals of heroism and has influenced countless works of art, music, and literature. Its impact can be seen in the Roman poet Virgil’s epic Aeneid, as well as in modern literary adaptations such as Madeline Miller’s The Song of Achilles (2011) and Pat Barker’s The Silence of the Girls (2018). Films such as Helen of Troy (1956) and Troy (2004) have brought the epic’s characters and events to the screen.

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Homer as an Oral Poet

Greek Literature

Greek Mythology

Main characters

The Greeks

Achilles: He is the son of the Nereid (divine sea nymph) Thetis and the mortal Peleus, king of the Myrmidons. The central figure of the Iliad, Achilles is the bravest, handsomest, and greatest warrior of the army of Agamemnon in the Trojan War. His anger at Agamemnon leads him to withdraw from battle, and his eventual return after the death of his companion Patroclus drives the poem toward its climax.

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An Odyssey of Grecian Literature

Agamemnon: The king of Mycenae or Argos, Agamemnon is the elder brother of Menelaus. He is the commander of the Greek army that fights the Trojan War for the recovery of Menelaus’s wife, Helen. His quarrel with Achilles begins when he takes a woman named Briseis from Achilles, provoking the conflict that shapes much of the epic.

Menelaus: Agamemnon’s younger brother, Menelaus is the king of Sparta. He sails to Troy, serving under Agamemnon in the Trojan War, to recover Helen. In an attempt to end the war, he duels with Paris on the condition that the victor of the single combat will win Helen.

Patroclus: He is Achilles’ closest companion. When the Greeks are in danger, he enters the battle wearing Achilles’ armor, but the Trojan prince Hector kills him. Patroclus’s death serves a vital narrative function in the poem by inspiring Achilles to rejoin the battle to avenge the death of his friend.

Odysseus: Odysseus is king of Ithaca and one of the most intelligent and persuasive Greek leaders. In the Iliad, he serves as a diplomat, adviser, strategist, and capable warrior, helping to maintain unity within the Greek camp.

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Ajax the Greater: The son of Telamon, who was the king of Salamis, Ajax is described in the Iliad as being of great stature and colossal frame, second only to Achilles in strength and bravery. He plays a major role in defending the Greek ships using his powerful spear and fights Hector in single combat.

Nestor: The king of Pylos, he is the oldest and wisest of the Greek chieftains who takes part in the Trojan War. Although he is no longer fit for direct combat, he is a respected counselor among the Greeks and frequently advises Agamemnon and the other commanders.

Diomedes: He is the young commander of 80 Argive ships and one of the most respected and fearless warriors in the Trojan War. He not only slays mortals but even wounds two Greek deities—Aphrodite and Ares.

Helen: Considered the most beautiful woman in the world, Menelaus’s wife Helen lives in Troy as the consort of Paris after fleeing with him during the absence of her husband. In the Iliad, she is deeply conscious of the destruction associated with her presence and often expresses guilt, regret, and contempt for Paris.

Gods and goddesses

The gods and goddesses play an active role in the Iliad, intervening in battles, protecting favored warriors, and influencing the course of the war. Some generally support the Greeks, whereas others favor the Trojans, and their loyalties are not always simple or consistent. Zeus, the supreme authority among the gods, does not belong straightforwardly to either camp. He temporarily favors the Trojans to fulfill his promise to Thetis while overseeing the broader fulfillment of fate and the war’s destined course. Toward the end of the epic, the deities engage in direct clashes with each other.

For the Greeks

• Athena: The goddess of war protects and advises Greek heroes, especially Achilles, Odysseus, and Diomedes, and helps bring about Hector’s death.
• Hera: Queen of the Olympian gods, she is fiercely supportive of the Greeks. During one of the battles, she tries to help the Greeks despite her husband Zeus forbidding deities to intervene. Later, she distracts and seduces Zeus so that Poseidon can continue helping the Greek forces.
• Hephaestus: A blacksmith and craftsman, he makes new armor for Achilles that includes a famed shield. He also uses fire against the river Scamander to burn it when the river threatens to drown Achilles in a flood.
• Poseidon: The god of the sea encourages and assists the Greeks when the Trojans threaten their ships. He supports the Greeks because Laomedon, an earlier ruler of Troy, had cheated him of the payment promised for building the city’s walls.

For the Trojans

• Apollo: The god of prophecy, music, healing, and other arts, he sends a plague upon the Greeks with his arrows after Agamemnon dishonors his priest Chryses. He protects Trojan warriors and makes Patroclus vulnerable before his death, thus assisting Hector.
• Aphrodite: Primarily known as a goddess of love, she favors Paris and the Trojans as he had chosen her as the fairest of the goddesses. She rescues Paris from his duel with Menelaus and also attempts to save her son Aeneas from Diomedes, although Diomedes wounds her.
• Ares: The god of war enters the fray to fight with the Trojans and especially aids Hector, until Athena helps Diomedes wound Ares and drive him from the battlefield. His agonized cry sounds like 10,000 men charging into war.
• Artemis: The goddess of hunting and wild animals, she is in favor of the Trojans but is ultimately outmatched by Hera. She is humiliated and eventually retreats to Mount Olympus in tears.

Plot summary

The Trojan War has entered its 10th year, and the Greeks remain encamped outside Troy with victory still beyond their reach. Across more than 15,000 lines, the Iliad covers a few crucial weeks near the end of the war. However, what drives the narrative is not the impending fall of Troy but the wrath (mēnis in Greek) of Achilles and the catastrophic events that it triggers. As classical studies scholar Leonard Muellner writes in his The Anger of Achilles: Mēnis in Greek Epic (1996):

The subject of the Iliad is the anger of Achilles, not Achilles himself.

Books 1–2: Agamemnon refuses to return a maiden named Chryseis, the daughter of Apollo’s priest Chryses, in exchange for a handsome ransom. This enrages Apollo, who cripples the Greek camp with a nine-day plague. Forced to part with Chryseis to calm Apollo, a smarting Agamemnon demands Achilles’ tribute, the maiden Briseis. After a heated exchange over Briseis, an insulted, indignant Achilles walks out of the fight, along with Patroclus and their troops, the Myrmidons. On Achilles’ appeal, his mother, Thetis, entreats Zeus to make the Greeks face grave troubles so that their commander repents. The chief deity of the Greek pantheon obliges.

Books 3–8: As the two sides prepare for battle, Paris proposes that he and Menelaus engage in a duel, with the victor laying final claim to Helen. When Paris faces imminent defeat and death in the combat, Aphrodite rescues him, denying Menelaus a certain victory. The next several days witness brutal warfare, bringing Diomedes to prominence and allowing the Greeks to gain ground. Hector briefly returns to the palace and meets Andromache and their son, where their conversation reveals the human cost of the war. Once he is back on the battlefield, he leads the Trojan advance and, with Zeus still favoring the Trojans, drives the Greeks back to their fortified naval camp.

Books 9–15: Desperate to get back his finest warrior, Agamemnon sends an embassy to Achilles, offering rich gifts for his return. But the proud warrior rejects it, unwilling to forgive the insult to his honor. That night, both sides plan to spy on one another, but Odysseus and Diomedes capture and kill Dolon, Hector’s agent, before raiding the camp of Troy’s Thracian allies. As several Greek leaders are wounded in renewed fighting, Achilles sends Patroclus to visit the battlefield to report on how the battle is progressing. Poseidon later rallies the Greeks, who gain some ground, but, when Zeus discovers his involvement, he swiftly sends Apollo to revive and assist Hector. With repeated divine support, the Trojans are able to breach the Greek defenses until they reach the Greek ships and threaten to burn them.

Books 16–18: Patroclus, distressed by the suffering of the Greeks, requests Achilles to allow him to rejoin the battle wearing Achilles’ armor. Achilles agrees, although he still refuses to participate until the Trojans reach his own ships. As Hector begins to set Greek ships ablaze, Patroclus leads a powerful counterattack, drives the Trojans back, and kills Sarpedon. Once more, divine forces alter the course of action. Apollo stuns Patroclus and strips him of his armor. Euphorbus wounds him, and Hector lands the fatal blow. Devastated, Achilles now vows to return to battle and avenge Patroclus’s death. His appearance and war cry terrify the Trojans, but Hector rejects Polydamas’s sound advice to withdraw behind Troy’s walls, leaving the army exposed on the plain.

Books 19–24: Having set aside his differences with Agamemnon, Achilles reenters the war, thirsty for the blood of the Trojans. He routs the Trojan forces and captures 12 of them to offer as human sacrifices in honor of Patroclus. While the rest of his troops fall behind the safety of the city walls, Hector stays outside, ready to face Achilles. When Achilles charges at him, however, Hector tries to flee but is tricked by Athena into fighting back. Achilles slays Hector in single combat, dragging his corpse behind his chariot. The epic reaches its emotional climax when Priam enters the Greek camp to ransom his son’s body. Moved by his entreaty, Achilles relinquishes Hector’s corpse. The Iliad concludes not with the fall of Troy, but with Hector’s funeral laments.