Trojan War

Trojan War, legendary conflict between the early Greeks and the people of Troy in western Anatolia, dated by later Greek authors to the 12th or 13th century bce. The war, one of the key events in Greek mythology, stirred the imagination of the ancient Greeks more than any other event in their history and was celebrated in the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer, as well as a number of other early works now lost, and frequently provided material for the great dramatists of the Classical Age (5th and 4th centuries bce). It also figures in the literature of the Romans (e.g., Virgil’s Aeneid) and of later peoples down to modern times.

In the traditional accounts, Paris, son of the Trojan king, ran off with Helen, wife of Menelaus of Sparta, whose brother Agamemnon then led a Greek expedition against Troy. The ensuing war lasted 10 years, finally ending with the sack of Troy by the victorious Greeks. This version was recorded centuries later; the extent to which it reflects actual historical events is not known.

The cause of the war

By many accounts, including the Iliad, the Trojan War was orchestrated by Zeus as a scheme to reduce the human population. It germinated in the “judgment of Paris,” in which the Trojan prince was deputed by Zeus to judge a divine beauty contest that began at the wedding of the Nereid Thetis and the mortal Peleus, parents of Achilles. All the gods and goddesses were invited to attend with the exception of Eris, the deity of discord. True to her nature, Eris appeared at the wedding with a golden apple to be awarded “to the fairest.” It was claimed by three goddesses—Hera, Aphrodite, and Athena. Paris picked Aphrodite as the winner after she promised him the love of the most beautiful woman in the world—Helen. Paris contrived a diplomatic visit to Sparta and, once there, eloped with Helen to Troy.

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An allied Greek force was consequently assembled to wage war against Troy for the recovery of Helen, whose honor and marriage to Menelaus was what many of the Greek kings (her former suitors) had sworn to defend. The Greek pantheon was divided in its loyalties, with Aphrodite, Ares, Apollo, and Artemis taking the part of the Trojans, while Athena, Hera, Poseidon, and Hephaestus assisted the Greeks. The gods intervened frequently by protecting and guiding their chosen champions and occasionally participated in the actual fighting.

Main characters

The Greek heroes

• Achilles: Greatest of the Greek warriors and famously invulnerable except for his heel, Achilles is the central character in the Iliad, which relates how he refused to fight in the 10th year of the war after a dispute with Agamemnon but rejoined the war after the death of his companion, Patroclus.
• Odysseus: Hero of Homer’s Odyssey and king of Ithaca, Odysseus was known for his cunning and strategic planning skills. When asked to join the Greek force he feigned insanity because of a prophecy that he would not return home for a long time. He was forced to abandon his pretense when exposed by Palamedes.
• Agamemnon: King of Mycenae and husband of Helen’s sister Clytemnestra, Agamemnon was chosen as the Greek commander. He infamously sacrificed his daughter Iphigeneia to Artemis at the port of Aulis, where the Greek force had been stranded by the lack of a favorable wind. On his return home he was murdered by Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus.
• Menelaus: Husband of Helen and king of Sparta, Menelaus welcomed Helen back after Troy fell and returned with her to Sparta.
• Diomedes: King of Argos and often regarded as second only to Achilles in military prowess, Diomedes formed a strategic partnership with Odysseus and was famed for his fearlessness in battle, even injuring the gods.
• Ajax the Greater: King of Salamis and recognizable by his colossal frame, Ajax the Greater competed for Achilles’ armor against Odysseus after Achilles’ death and died by suicide after losing.

Ajax the Lesser (so named for his short build and to distinguish him from the physically imposing Ajax the Greater) is remembered for his impious actions, such as dragging the Trojan princess Cassandra from a statue of Athena and violating her. The Greek force also included Nestor, king of Pylos, who was 70 years of age and took no active part in the fighting but served as an adviser.

The women of the Trojan War

Often overshadowed by the heroics of the warriors, the suffering and resilience of the women of the Trojan War form the emotional core of the conflict.

• Helen: Regarded as the loveliest of all women, Helen’s elopement with Paris prompted the Greek expedition to Troy. She returned to Sparta with Menelaus after the sack of Troy. According to Herodotus, she remained in Egypt during the course of the war while a phantom Helen took her place in Troy.
• Penthesilea: Amazon queen of great renown, Penthesilea was a Trojan ally and was killed by Achilles in battle.
• Andromache: Wife of Hector, Andromache became one of the spoils of war and was claimed by Achilles’ son, Neoptolemus, after the sack of Troy.
• Cassandra: Daughter of Priam and Hecuba, Cassandra was given the gift of prophecy and also the curse of never being believed by Apollo (in the Iliad she has no prophetic abilities). As a result, her warning about the fall of Troy was ignored. She was violated by Ajax the Lesser during the sack of Troy and then claimed by Agamemnon, with whom she was later murdered by Clytemnestra and Aegisthus.
• Iphigeneia: Eldest daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, Iphigeneia was sacrificed to Artemis by her father after being enticed to Aulis with the false promise of marriage to Achilles. In some versions she was rescued at the last moment by Artemis herself.

Key events during the course of the war

The Greek landing: When the Greek fleet (accounts vary on the number of ships but the popular figure is 1,000) reached the coast of Troy, the soldiers hesitated to disembark because of the prophecy that the first man to do so would also be the first to die. Finally, Protesilaus went ashore and, as predicted, was the first to be killed—in most accounts by Hector—in the battle that followed. In some versions Odysseus landed first but circumvented the prophecy by standing on his shield instead of on the ground.

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The consequences of in-fighting: In the eventful 10th year a bitter confrontation erupted when Achilles insisted that Agamemnon return Chryseis, his prize of war, to her father, a priest of Apollo, who had sent a plague to the Greek camp. In retaliation Agamemnon seized Achilles’ concubine, Briseis, prompting Achilles and his army, known as the Myrmidons, to desert the war.

The duel that the Greeks almost won: An opportunity for a decisive victory occurred when Paris challenged the Greeks to best him in single combat, with Menelaus naturally stepping forward. It was agreed that Helen would be the prize. Menelaus proved the better fighter and began dragging Paris by his hair back to the Greek contingent. However, Aphrodite intervened by spiriting Paris away before Menelaus could kill him, leaving the encounter inconclusive.

The wounding of the gods: Without Achilles to dominate the fighting, the glories of war fell to Diomedes. The Iliad relates that he crushed Aeneas’s hip by throwing at him a massive rock that lesser men could not have lifted singly. Aphrodite came swiftly to her injured son’s aid. As she bore Aeneas away from the battlefield, Diomedes pursued and grazed her wrist. After she fled to Mount Olympus, Diomedes wounded Ares and defied Apollo, who had cautioned him to respect the gods’ divine status.

The rage of Achilles: Despite the heroics of Diomedes and others, the Greeks suffered in the absence of Achilles and his Myrmidons. Eventually, Achilles’ closest companion, Patroclus, entered the battle dressed in Achilles’ armor. His disguise was a success, and he slew the Trojan hero Sarpedon. However, Patroclus then fell to Hector. The enraged and grief-stricken Achilles received a new set of armor from Hephaestus and engaged Hector in a ferocious duel, ultimately prevailing. He then dragged Hector’s corpse behind his chariot for 12 days until the gods intervened and Priam ransomed his son’s body. The Iliad ends with Hector’s funeral.

The deaths of Achilles and Paris: Both heroes predeceased the fall of Troy. Achilles died when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo struck him in his heel, the only vulnerable portion of his anatomy. Soon after, Paris was fatally wounded by the Greek archer Philoctetes.

The fall of Troy

Troy was captured by the Greeks in the 10th year of war, as had been foretold by an oracle. To secure a victory, the Greeks had to fulfill certain conditions—the shoulder bone of Pelops (grandfather of Agamemnon and Menelaus) was to be brought to the Greek camp, Neoptolemus was to be recruited into the Greek side, the arrows of Heracles (owned by Philoctetes) were to be pressed into service, and the Palladium (a statue of Pallas Athena) was to be removed from Troy. These tasks were duly completed (accounts vary on whether Pelops’ remains were actually brought to the camp), with Odysseus and Diomedes stealing the Palladium.

The Trojan horse, the stratagem that enabled the final breach of Troy’s fortifications, was devised by Odysseus. The Greeks pretended to withdraw and left behind a hollow wooden structure in the shape of a giant horse that concealed an elite team of warriors within. A soldier named Sinon, left behind by the retreating Greeks, persuaded the Trojans that the horse was an offering to Athena and to wheel it into the city.

The raiding party hidden within the Trojan horse included Odysseus, Menelaus, Diomedes, Ajax the Lesser, and Neoptolemus. The Odyssey relates that Helen identified the horse as an ambush and tested the concealed warriors by imitating the voices of their wives; many of them attempted to reveal themselves but were prevented from doing so by Odysseus. At night the Greeks emerged from their hiding place and admitted the rest of the army into Troy. The devastation that followed left few survivors. These included Aeneas, who fled the city, and the royal women, who were distributed as spoils of war between the Greeks. Priam was killed by Neoptolemus, and his bloodline was extinguished.