uranium processing

uranium processing, preparation of the ore for use in various products.

Uranium (U), although very dense (19.1 grams per cubic centimeter), is a relatively weak, nonrefractory metal. Indeed, the metallic properties of uranium appear to be intermediate between those of silver and other true metals and those of the nonmetallic elements, so that it is not valued for structural applications. The principal value of uranium is in the radioactive and fissionable properties of its isotopes. In nature, almost all (99.27 percent) of the metal consists of uranium-238; the remainder consists of uranium-235 (0.72 percent) and uranium-234 (0.006 percent). Of these naturally occurring isotopes, only uranium-235 is directly fissionable by neutron irradiation. However, uranium-238, upon absorbing a neutron, forms uranium-239, and this latter isotope eventually decays into plutonium-239—a fissile material of great importance in nuclear power and nuclear weapons. Another fissile isotope, uranium-233, can be formed by neutron irradiation of thorium-232.

Even at room temperature, finely divided uranium metal reacts with oxygen and nitrogen. At higher temperatures it reacts with a wide variety of alloying metals to form intermetallic compounds. Solid-solution formation with other metals occurs only rarely, owing to the singular crystalline structures formed by uranium atoms. Between room temperature and its melting point of 1,132 °C (2,070 °F), uranium metal exists in three crystalline forms known as the alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) phases. Transformation from the alpha to the beta phase occurs at 668 °C (1,234 °F) and from the beta to the gamma phase at 775 °C (1,427 °F). Gamma uranium has a body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure, while beta uranium has a tetragonal structure. The alpha phase, however, consists of corrugated sheets of atoms in a highly asymmetrical orthorhombic structure. This anisotropic, or distorted, structure makes it difficult for the atoms of alloying metals to substitute for uranium atoms or to occupy spaces between uranium atoms in the crystal lattice. Only molybdenum and niobium have been observed to form solid-solution alloys with uranium.

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History

The German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth is credited with discovering the element uranium in 1789 in a sample of pitchblende. Klaproth named the new element after the planet Uranus, which had been discovered in 1781. It was not until 1841, however, that the French chemist Eugène-Melchior Péligot showed that the black metallic substance obtained by Klaproth was really the compound uranium dioxide. Péligot prepared actual uranium metal by reducing uranium tetrachloride with potassium metal.

Prior to the discovery and elucidation of nuclear fission, the few practical uses of uranium (and these were very small) were in the coloring of ceramics and as a catalyst in certain specialized applications. Today, uranium is highly valued for nuclear applications, both military and commercial, and even low-grade ores have great economic worth. Uranium metal is routinely produced by means of the Ames process, developed by the American chemist F.H. Spedding and his colleagues in 1942 at Iowa State University, Ames. In this process, the metal is obtained from uranium tetrafluoride by thermal reduction with magnesium.

Ores

The Earth’s crust contains about two parts per million uranium, reflecting a wide distribution in nature. The oceans are estimated to contain 4.5 × 10⁹ tons of the element. Uranium occurs as a significant constituent in more than 150 different minerals and as a minor component of another 50 minerals. Primary uranium minerals, found in magmatic hydrothermal veins and in pegmatites, include uraninite and pitchblende (the latter a variety of uraninite). The uranium in these two ores occurs in the form of uranium dioxide, which—owing to oxidation—can vary in exact chemical composition from UO₂ to UO_2.67. Other uranium ores of economic importance are autunite, a hydrated calcium uranyl phosphate; tobernite, a hydrated copper uranyl phosphate; coffinite, a black hydrated uranium silicate; and carnotite, a yellow hydrated potassium uranyl vanadate.

It is estimated that more than 90 percent of known low-cost uranium reserves occur in Canada, South Africa, the United States, Australia, Niger, Namibia, Brazil, Algeria, and France. About 50 to 60 percent of these reserves are in the conglomerate rock formations of Elliot Lake, located north of Lake Huron in Ontario, Canada, and in the Witwatersrand goldfields of South Africa. Sandstone formations in the Colorado Plateau and Wyoming Basin of the western United States also contain significant reserves of uranium.

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Mining and concentrating

Uranium ores occur in deposits that are both near-surface and very deep (e.g., 300 to 1,200 meters, or 1,000 to 4,000 feet). The deep ores sometimes occur in seams as thick as 30 meters. As is the case with ores of other metals, surface uranium ores are readily mined with large earth-moving equipment, while deep deposits are mined by traditional vertical-shaft and drift methods.

Uranium ores typically contain only a small amount of uranium-bearing minerals, and these are not amenable to smelting by direct pyrometallurgical methods; instead, hydrometallurgical procedures must be used to extract and purify the uranium values. Physical concentration would greatly reduce the load on hydrometallurgical processing circuits, but none of the conventional beneficiation methods typically employed in mineral processing—e.g., gravity, flotation, electrostatics, and even hand sorting—are generally applicable to uranium ores. With few exceptions, concentration methods result in excessive loss of uranium to tailings.

Extraction and refining