process metallurgy

…from bauxite is a two-step process: refining bauxite to obtain alumina and smelting alumina to produce aluminum. Bauxite contains a number of impurities, including iron oxide, silica, and titania. If these impurities are not removed during refining, they will alloy with and contaminate the metal during the smelting process. The…

If carbon and Cr₂O₃ are combined in a molar ratio of 3:1 and subjected to increasing temperature, a number of oxidation-reduction reactions will ensue that will produce first a series of chromium carbides and finally, at 2,080 °C (3,775 °F), pure chromium…

The most important sulfide sources, the copper-cobalt ores of Congo (Kinshasa) and Zambia, are processed in the conventional manner to produce a copper-cobalt concentrate. This is then treated by flotation to separate a cobalt-rich concentrate for treatment in the cobalt circuit. Separation flotation utilizes…

The final step, refining, removes the last traces of the impurity elements and produces a copper product of 99.99 percent purity.

…into traditional blast furnaces for smelting, it must be roasted to remove most of the sulfur and to agglomerate further the fine flotation products so that they will not be blown out of the blast furnace. Various fluxing materials, such as limestone or iron ore, are mixed with the ore…

After extraction by the processes described above, crude magnesium metal is transported to cast shops for removal of impurities, addition of alloying elements, and transformation into ingots, billets, and slabs. During melting and handling, molten magnesium metal and alloys are protected from burning by a layer of flux or…

…produced by hydrometallurgical and electrolytic processes, while ferromanganese and silicomanganese are produced by the smelting of ores in a blast furnace or, more commonly, in an electric furnace. The latter process, involving the reduction of manganese oxides by carbon, is actually a complex thermodynamic problem. The higher oxides (MnO₂, Mn₂O₃,…

…percent of MoS₂ must be converted into technical molybdic oxide (85–90 percent MoO₃) in order to reach its commercial destination. Such conversion is almost universally carried out in Nichols-Herreshoff-type multiple-hearth furnaces, into which molybdenite concentrate is fed from the top against a current of heated air and gases blown from…

The extraction of nickel from ore follows much the same route as copper, and indeed, in a number of cases, similar processes and equipment are used. The major differences in equipment are the use of higher-temperature refractories and the increased cooling required to accommodate the higher…

Pyrochlore concentrates are commonly reduced to ferroniobium through an aluminothermic process. In this process, the concentrate is mixed with hematite (an iron ore), aluminum powder, and small quantities of fluorspar and lime fluxes in a rotary mixer and then unloaded into steel containers lined with magnesite refractory bricks. Here…

preparation of the ore for use in various products.

There are two methods of refining impure tin. Fire refining is most commonly used and produces tin (up to 99.85 percent) suitable for general commercial use. Electrolytic refining is used on the products of complex ores and to produce a very high grade of tin (up to 99.999 percent).

Tungsten ores frequently occur in association with sulfides and arsenides, which can be removed by roasting in air for two to four hours at 800° C (1,450° F). In order to produce ammonium paratungstate (APT), an intermediate compound in production of the pure metal, ores may…

Titaniferous magnetite ore is partially reduced with coal in rotary kilns and then melted in a furnace. This produces a slag containing most of the titanium and a pig iron containing most of the vanadium. After removing the slag, the molten pig iron is blown with…

Both of the main extraction methods for the production of zinc, electrolysis and smelting, require the prior removal of sulfur in a highly exothermic oxidation reaction: