fusion reactor

fusion reactor, a device to produce electrical power from the energy released in a nuclear fusion reaction. The use of nuclear fusion reactions for electricity generation remains theoretical.

Since the 1930s, scientists have known that the Sun and other stars generate their energy by nuclear fusion. They realized that if fusion energy generation could be replicated in a controlled manner on Earth, it might very well provide a safe, clean, and inexhaustible source of energy. The 1950s saw the beginning of a worldwide research effort to develop a fusion reactor. The substantial accomplishments and prospects of this continuing endeavour are described in this article.

General characteristics

The energy-producing mechanism in a fusion reactor is the joining together of two light atomic nuclei. When two nuclei fuse, a small amount of mass is converted into a large amount of energy. Energy (E) and mass (m) are related through Einstein’s relation, E = mc², by the large conversion factor c², where c is the speed of light (about 3 × 10⁸ metres per second, or 186,000 miles per second). Mass can be converted to energy also by nuclear fission, the splitting of a heavy nucleus. This splitting process is utilized in nuclear reactors.

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Fusion reactions are inhibited by the electrical repulsive force, called the Coulomb force, that acts between two positively charged nuclei. For fusion to occur, the two nuclei must approach each other at high speed in order to overcome their electrical repulsion and attain a sufficiently small separation (less than one-trillionth of a centimetre) so that the short-range strong force dominates. For the production of useful amounts of energy, a large number of nuclei must undergo fusion; that is to say, a gas of fusing nuclei must be produced. In a gas at extremely high temperatures, the average nucleus contains sufficient kinetic energy to undergo fusion. Such a medium can be produced by heating an ordinary gas beyond the temperature at which electrons are knocked out of their atoms. The result is an ionized gas consisting of free negative electrons and positive nuclei. This ionized gas is in a plasma state, the fourth state of matter. Most of the matter in the universe is in the plasma state.

At the core of experimental fusion reactors is a high-temperature plasma. Fusion occurs between the nuclei, with the electrons present only to maintain macroscopic charge neutrality. The temperature of the plasma is about 100,000,000 kelvins (K; about 100,000,000 °C, or 180,000,000 °F), which is more than six times the temperature at the centre of the Sun. (Higher temperatures are required for the lower pressures and densities encountered in fusion reactors.) A plasma loses energy through processes such as radiation, conduction, and convection, so sustaining a hot plasma requires that fusion reactions add enough energy to balance the energy losses. In order to achieve this balance, the product of the plasma’s density and its energy confinement time (the time it takes the plasma to lose its energy if unreplaced) must exceed a critical value.

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Energy & Fossil Fuels

Stars, including the Sun, consist of plasmas that generate energy by fusion reactions. In these natural fusion reactors, plasma is confined at high pressures by the immense gravitational field. It is not possible to assemble on Earth a plasma sufficiently massive to be gravitationally confined. For terrestrial applications, there are two main approaches to controlled fusion—namely, magnetic confinement and inertial confinement.

In magnetic confinement a low-density plasma is confined for a long period of time by a magnetic field. The plasma density is roughly 10²¹ particles per cubic metre, which is many thousands of times less than the density of air at room temperature. The energy confinement time must then be at least one second—i.e., the energy in the plasma must be replaced every second.

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In inertial confinement no attempt is made to confine the plasma beyond the time it takes the plasma to disassemble. The energy confinement time is simply the time it takes the fusing plasma to expand. Confined only by its own inertia, the plasma survives for only about one-billionth of a second (one nanosecond). Hence, breakeven in this scheme requires a very large particle density, typically about 10³⁰ particles per cubic metre, which is about 100 times the density of a liquid. A thermonuclear bomb is an example of an inertially confined plasma. In an inertial confinement power plant, the extreme density is achieved by compressing a millimetre-scale solid pellet of fuel with lasers or particle beams. These approaches are sometimes referred to as laser fusion or particle-beam fusion.

The fusion reaction least difficult to achieve combines a deuteron (the nucleus of a deuterium atom) with a triton (the nucleus of a tritium atom). Both nuclei are isotopes of the hydrogen nucleus and contain a single unit of positive electric charge. Deuterium-tritium (D-T) fusion thus requires the nuclei to have lower kinetic energy than is needed for the fusion of more highly charged, heavier nuclei. The two products of the reaction are an alpha particle (the nucleus of a helium atom) at an energy of 3.5 million electron volts (MeV) and a neutron at an energy of 14.1 MeV (1 MeV is the energy equivalent of a temperature of about 10,000,000,000 K). The neutron, lacking electric charge, is not affected by electric or magnetic fields and can escape the plasma to deposit its energy in a surrounding material, such as lithium. The heat generated in the lithium “blanket” can then be converted to electrical energy by conventional means, such as steam-driven turbines. The electrically charged alpha particles, meanwhile, collide with the deuterons and tritons (by their electrical interaction) and can be magnetically confined within the plasma, thereby transferring their energy to the reacting nuclei. When this redeposition of the fusion energy into the plasma exceeds the power lost from the plasma, the plasma will be self-sustaining, or “ignited.”

Although tritium does not occur naturally, tritons and alpha particles are produced when neutrons from the D-T fusion reactions are captured in the surrounding lithium blanket. The tritons are then fed back into the plasma. In this respect, D-T fusion reactors are unique as they use their waste (neutrons) to generate more fuel. Overall, a D-T fusion reactor uses deuterium and lithium as fuel and generates helium as a reaction by-product. Deuterium can be readily obtained from seawater—about one in every 3,000 water molecules contains a deuterium atom. Lithium is also abundant and inexpensive. In fact, there is enough deuterium and lithium in the oceans to provide for the world’s energy needs for billions of years. With deuterium and lithium as the fuel, a D-T fusion reactor would be an effectively inexhaustible source of energy.

A practical fusion reactor would also have several attractive safety and environmental features. First, a fusion reactor would not release the pollutants that accompany the combustion of fossil fuels—in particular, the gases that contribute to global warming. Second, because the fusion reaction is not a chain reaction, a fusion reactor cannot undergo a runaway chain reaction, or “meltdown,” as can happen in a fission reactor. The fusion reaction requires a confined hot plasma, and any interruption of a plasma control system would extinguish the plasma and terminate fusion. Third, the main products of a fusion reaction (helium atoms) are not radioactive. Although some radioactive by-products are produced by the absorption of neutrons in the surrounding material, low-activation materials exist such that these by-products have much shorter half-lives and are less toxic than the waste products of a nuclear reactor. Examples of such low-activation materials include special steels or ceramic composites (e.g., silicon carbide).