anarchism: Anarchism in China: …in Paris (the so-called “Paris anarchists”) returned to Beijing and immediately became involved in the reform of education and culture. Convinced of the need for social revolution, the Paris anarchists argued in favour of Western science against religion and superstition, called for the emancipation of women and youth, rejected…

Paris attacks of 2015, coordinated terrorist attacks that took place in Paris on the evening of November 13, 2015. At least 130 people were killed and more than 350 were injured. France was shaken on January 7, 2015, by a deadly assault on the offices of satiric magazine Charlie Hebdo. A pair of

science fiction: Jules Verne: …Paris au XXième siècle (Paris in the Twentieth Century)—written in 1863 but not published until 1994—is set in the distant 1960s and contains some of his most accurate prognostications: elevated trains, automobiles, facsimile machines, and computer-like banking machines. Nevertheless, the book’s depiction of a dark and bitter dystopian world…

Paris Basin, geographic region of France, constituting the lowland area around Paris. Geologically it is the centre of a structural depression that extends between the ancient Armoricain Massif (west), the Massif Central (south), and the Vosges, Ardennes, and Rhineland (east). The area, which forms

Jacques Rivette: …with Paris nous appartient (Paris Belongs to Us), a sprawling atmospheric account of a young woman’s gradual involvement in both a low-rent theatre troupe and a vaguely sinister political movement. Rivette’s next film, La Religieuse (1966; The Nun), enjoyed commercial success, aided by the fact that the French government…

Martin Ritt: Films of the 1960s: …Ritt found greater success with Paris Blues (1961). Set in France, with a sound track steeped in the music of Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong, it tells the story of expatriate American jazzmen played by Newman and Poitier, who, respectively, romance tourists played by Woodward and Diahann Carroll. Ernest Hemingway’s…

Brassaï: …book, Paris de nuit (1933; Paris After Dark, also published as Paris by Night), which caused a stir because of its sometimes scandalous subject matter. His next book, Voluptés de Paris (1935; “Pleasures of Paris”), made him internationally famous.

airport: Open apron and linear designs: …Munich Airport in Germany, and Charles de Gaulle Airport near Paris.

Paris Agreement, international treaty, named for the city of Paris, France, in which it was adopted in December 2015, which aimed to reduce the emission of gases that contribute to global warming. The Paris Agreement set out to improve upon and replace the Kyoto Protocol, an earlier international

Paris Codex, one of the very few texts of the pre-Conquest Maya known to have survived the book burnings by the Spanish clergy during the 16th century (others include the Madrid, Dresden, and Grolier codices). Its Latin name comes from the name Perez, which was written on the torn wrappings of the

Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette: …he was procurator-general of the Paris Commune, in which capacity he improved conditions in the hospitals; organized decent burial for the poor; and forbade whipping in the schools, prostitution, obscene publications, and lotteries.

Commune of Paris, (1871), insurrection of Paris against the French government from March 18 to May 28, 1871. It occurred in the wake of France’s defeat in the Franco-German War and the collapse of Napoleon III’s Second Empire (1852–70). The National Assembly, which was elected in February 1871 to

Sarah Bernhardt: Early life and training: …for her to enter the Paris Conservatoire, the government-sponsored school of acting. She was not considered a particularly promising student, and, although she revered some of her teachers, she regarded the Conservatoire’s methods as antiquated.

Hector Berlioz: Early career: …professor of composition at the Paris Conservatoire. This led to disagreements between Berlioz and his parents that embittered nearly eight years of his life. He persevered, took the obligatory courses at the Conservatoire, and in 1830 won the Prix de Rome, having received second prize in an earlier competition. These…

Orchestre de Paris, French symphony orchestra formed in 1828 to perform at the Société des Concerts du Conservatoire. Its 56 string and 25 wind instrument players were present and former students of the Paris Conservatory, and its early concerts strongly emphasized Ludwig van Beethoven’s music. As

trademark: …first international agreement was the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property of 1883, which has been regularly revised ever since. It sets minimum standards for trademark protection and provides similar treatment for foreign trademark holders as for nationals. Approximately 100 countries are party to the Paris Convention. Uniform…

marguerite, (Argyranthemum frutescens), ornamental plant of the aster family (Asteraceae), grown for its daisylike flowers. The plant is native to the Canary Islands and has become naturalized in parts of Europe and North America. The marguerite plant is a short-lived shrubby perennial and is grown

Ute Lemper: In 2012 she issued Paris Days, Berlin Nights, a collection of cabaret songs by such composers as Hanns Eisler, Astor Piazzolla, and Jacques Brel. Lemper then worked with Marcelo Nisinman of Argentina to set the poetry of Pablo Neruda to music on Forever: The Love Poems of Pablo Neruda…

Brassaï: …book, Paris de nuit (1933; Paris After Dark, also published as Paris by Night), which caused a stir because of its sometimes scandalous subject matter. His next book, Voluptés de Paris (1935; “Pleasures of Paris”), made him internationally famous.

Jean Renoir: Later years: …Eléna et les hommes (1956; Paris Does Strange Things), a period fantasy swept along in a prodigious movement. His last works, from the 1960s, do not achieve the same beauty, nor does the work he produced for television.

Gustave Eiffel: …Gallery of Machines for the Paris Exhibition of 1867. In 1877 he bridged the Douro River at Oporto, Port., with a 525-foot (160-metre) steel arch, which he followed with an even greater arch of the same type, the 540-foot (162-metre) span Garabit viaduct over the Truyère River in southern France,…

Virgil Abloh: Off-White: …began showing both collections during Paris Fashion Week. The following year Abloh was announced as a finalist for the LVMH Prize for Young Fashion Designers, and Off-White gained attention when Beyoncé and Nicki Minaj wore pieces from the label in the latter’s video for the song “Feeling Myself.”

Paris Gun, any of several long-range cannon produced by the German arms manufacturer Krupp in 1917–18 during World War I. The guns were so called because they were specially built to shell Paris at a range, never before attained, of approximately 121 km (75 miles). The guns were fabricated by

International New York Times, daily newspaper published in Paris, France, that has long been the staple source of English-language news for American expatriates, tourists, and businesspeople in Europe. It is considered the first “global” newspaper. The International New York Times’s roots are in

Universities of Paris I–XIII, universities founded in 1970 under France’s 1968 Orientation Act, reforming higher education. They replaced the former University of Paris, one of the archetypal European universities, founded about 1170. The medieval University of Paris grew out of the cathedral

Universities of Paris I–XIII, universities founded in 1970 under France’s 1968 Orientation Act, reforming higher education. They replaced the former University of Paris, one of the archetypal European universities, founded about 1170. The medieval University of Paris grew out of the cathedral

science fiction: Jules Verne: …Paris au XXième siècle (Paris in the Twentieth Century)—written in 1863 but not published until 1994—is set in the distant 1960s and contains some of his most accurate prognostications: elevated trains, automobiles, facsimile machines, and computer-like banking machines. Nevertheless, the book’s depiction of a dark and bitter dystopian world…

Janet Flanner: …in Men and Monuments (1957), Paris Journal, 1944–1965 (1965), Paris Journal, 1965–1971 (1971), Paris Was Yesterday, 1925–1939 (1972), London Was Yesterday, 1934–1939 (1975), and Janet Flanner’s World: Uncollected Writings 1932–1975 (1979). In addition to her collections of essays, Flanner wrote a novel, The Cubical City (1926,

Janet Flanner: (1957), Paris Journal, 1944–1965 (1965), Paris Journal, 1965–1971 (1971), Paris Was Yesterday, 1925–1939 (1972), London Was Yesterday, 1934–1939 (1975), and Janet Flanner’s World: Uncollected Writings 1932–1975 (1979). In addition to her collections of essays, Flanner wrote a novel, The Cubical City (1926, reprinted 1974), and translated Colette’s Chéri

Kenenisa Bekele: …in the event, winning the Paris Marathon. He was limited by injuries in 2015, but the following year he won the Berlin Marathon. He also was victorious in that event in 2019.

Paris Match, weekly pictorial magazine published in France since 1949 as successor to L’Illustration (1843–1944), which was discredited during World War II. A popular news and current-events magazine aimed at the middle class, Paris Match features picture stories on public affairs, profiles and

Paris: Transportation of Paris: …lines of the Métropolitain (Métro) subway system, first opened in 1900, are fast and frequent. Over many years, lines have been extended into the suburbs, and in 1998 a new, fully automatic line was opened to serve central areas of the city. The Réseau Express Régional (RER), a high-speed…

Paris: Transportation of Paris: …lines of the Métropolitain (Métro) subway system, first opened in 1900, are fast and frequent. Over many years, lines have been extended into the suburbs, and in 1998 a new, fully automatic line was opened to serve central areas of the city. The Réseau Express Régional (RER), a high-speed…

Western music: The Notre-Dame school: …text, resulting in the classic Paris motet: a three-part composition consisting of a portion of plainchant (tenor) overlaid with two faster moving parts, each with its own secular text in French. At the same time another polyphonic form, the conductus, was flourishing. It differed from a motet in that its…

anatomy: Anatomical nomenclature: …of it known as the Paris Nomina Anatomica (or simply Nomina Anatomica). In 1998 this work was supplanted by the Terminologia Anatomica, which recognizes about 7,500 terms describing macroscopic structures of human anatomy and is considered to be the international standard on human anatomical nomenclature. The Terminologia Anatomica, produced by…

Jacques Rivette: …with Paris nous appartient (Paris Belongs to Us), a sprawling atmospheric account of a young woman’s gradual involvement in both a low-rent theatre troupe and a vaguely sinister political movement. Rivette’s next film, La Religieuse (1966; The Nun), enjoyed commercial success, aided by the fact that the French government…

Paris Observatory, national astronomical observatory of France, under the direction of the Academy of Sciences. It was founded by Louis XIV at the instigation of J.-B. Colbert, and construction at the site in Paris began in 1667. Gian Domenico Cassini was the first of four generations of his family

From July 26 to August 11, 2024, Paris hosted one of the world’s largest and most-watched sporting events: the Summer Olympic Games. Athletes from around the globe converged on the French capital to compete for glory and gold. There were exciting triumphs and heartbreaking disappointments. Who were

Paris Opéra, opera company in Paris that for more than two centuries was the chief performer of serious operas and musical dramas in the French language. It is one of the most venerable operatic institutions in the world. The Paris Opéra was established as the Royal Academy of Music (Académie

Paris Opéra Ballet, ballet company established in France in 1661 by Louis XIV as the Royal Academy of Dance (Académie Royale de Danse) and amalgamated with the Royal Academy of Music in 1672. As part of the Théâtre National de l’Opéra, the company dominated European theatrical dance of the 18th and

Opéra, Parisian opera house designed by Charles Garnier. The building, considered one of the masterpieces of the Second Empire style, was begun in 1861 and opened with an orchestral concert on Jan. 5, 1875. The first opera performed there was Fromental Halévy’s work La Juive on Jan. 8, 1875. A

rapporteur: … and was adopted by the Parlement of Paris in the late 13th century. Originally rapporteurs were not members of the court, but by 1336 they were given full rights to participate in the decision-making process as judges.

Laos: Laos after the Geneva Conference, 1954–75: …States and North Vietnam at Paris called for a cease-fire in each of the countries of mainland Southeast Asia, but only in Laos was there peace. In February, just a month following the agreement, the Laotian factions signed the Vientiane Agreement, which provided again for a cease-fire and for yet…

Paris Peace Conference, (1919–20), the meeting that inaugurated the international settlement after World War I. Although hostilities had been brought formally to an end by a series of armistices between the Allies and their adversaries—that of Salonika (Thessaloníka) with Bulgaria on September 29,

Paris Peace Treaties, (1947) series of treaties between the Allied powers and five defeated European countries that had been aligned with Germany and the Axis powers during World War II, specifically Italy, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Finland. Representatives from 21 countries met in Paris from

postal system: International postal reform: the Universal Postal Union: …postal administrations met at the Paris Postal Conference, convening at the suggestion of the U.S. postmaster general. The conference established important general principles for the simplification of procedures, which were adopted as a model for subsequent bilateral treaties by the countries concerned.

The Paris Review, American literary quarterly founded in 1953 by Peter Matthiessen, Harold L. Humes, and George Plimpton, with Plimpton also serving as the first editor. It is an English-language review modeled on the independent literary magazines (also known as “little magazines”) published in

Paris Saint-Germain FC, French professional football (soccer) club based in Paris and competing in Ligue 1, the topflight French men’s football league. In 2011 Qatar Sports Investments, a Qatari government-operated shareholding organization, bought a majority stake in Paris Saint-Germain (PSG) and

Phil Spector: Early career: …Lee (“Pretty Little Angel Eyes”), the Paris Sisters (“I Love How You Love Me”), and others.

France: The stock exchange: …were historically centred on the Bourse de Paris (Paris Stock Exchange), a national system that in the late 20th century incorporated much smaller exchanges at Lyon, Bordeaux, Lille, Marseille, Nancy, and Nantes. Share dealings and stock market activity increased greatly beginning in the early 1980s, corresponding with a period of…

Paris Street; Rainy Day, oil-on-canvas painting (1877) by French artist Gustave Caillebotte depicting contemporary Parisians holding umbrellas as they crisscross the city just as a rain shower seems to have subsided. Considered the artist’s masterpiece, Paris Street; Rainy Day merges the modern

United States: World affairs: …this incident destroyed both the Paris summit and any hopes of bettering U.S.-Soviet relations.

symphony: Haydn: The late Paris Symphonies (1785–86) and London Symphonies (1791–95) reflect the influence of Mozart and show Haydn at the height of his power. No two movements are alike; the “mosaic” of theme elements pervades even transition sections and codas; each instrument shares in the melodic development; minuets…

Pierre Monteux: He founded and directed the Paris Symphony (1929–38) and then returned to the U.S. to take over the newly reorganized San Francisco Symphony (1936–52). In 1943 he established an annual summer school for student conductors at Hancock, Maine. From 1960 he was permanent conductor of the London Symphony.

Dennis Hopper: … nomination for the television movie Paris Trout (1991), in which he played the bigoted title character. He appeared as a Serbian war criminal on the television series 24 in 2002, and he later portrayed a music producer in the series Crash (2008–09).

Gregory Ratoff: Films of the 1930s and ’40s: …Gershwin and Kurl Weill), whereas Paris Underground (1945) was a solid drama in which prisoner-of-war internees (Constance Bennett and Gracie Fields) help run a resistance movement.

Paris ware, faience (tin-glazed earthenware) and porcelain ware produced in the Paris region from the 16th century. The hard-paste–porcelain industry in Paris owed its existence to a breach in the Sèvres porcelain monopoly after 1766. The major factories were under the protection or ownership of

Janet Flanner: (1965), Paris Journal, 1965–1971 (1971), Paris Was Yesterday, 1925–1939 (1972), London Was Yesterday, 1934–1939 (1975), and Janet Flanner’s World: Uncollected Writings 1932–1975 (1979). In addition to her collections of essays, Flanner wrote a novel, The Cubical City (1926, reprinted 1974), and translated Colette’s Chéri (1920) and Georgette Leblanc’s Ma vie…

Paris Zoo, zoological park, comprising the Menagerie of the Botanical Garden (Ménagerie du Jardin des Plantes) and the Zoological Park of Paris (Parc Zoologique de Paris), both services of the French National Museum of Natural History. In 1793 the Jardin des Plantes, which was originally a

BNP Paribas: …through the 1999 merger of Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP) and Paribas. Its headquarters are in Paris.

Gaston Paris was the greatest French philologist of his age. After a thorough education in German universities (notably under Friedrich Diez in Bonn) and at the École des Chartes in Paris, he succeeded his father as professor of French medieval literature at the Collège de France. He was one of the

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe: …by the adoption of a Charter of Paris for a New Europe, which expanded the organization’s role and established permanent institutions. In 1991 Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania became members, and Russia assumed the seat held by the former Soviet Union. In 1992 the other republics formerly of the Soviet Union…

Commune of Paris, (1871), insurrection of Paris against the French government from March 18 to May 28, 1871. It occurred in the wake of France’s defeat in the Franco-German War and the collapse of Napoleon III’s Second Empire (1852–70). The National Assembly, which was elected in February 1871 to

Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette: …he was procurator-general of the Paris Commune, in which capacity he improved conditions in the hospitals; organized decent burial for the poor; and forbade whipping in the schools, prostitution, obscene publications, and lotteries.

Commune of Paris, (1871), insurrection of Paris against the French government from March 18 to May 28, 1871. It occurred in the wake of France’s defeat in the Franco-German War and the collapse of Napoleon III’s Second Empire (1852–70). The National Assembly, which was elected in February 1871 to

Chlotar II: …wide-ranging edict, issued at the Council of Paris in October 614, intended to settle the problems arising from the long years of turmoil. He made contact with the Irish missionary and monastic reformer St. Columban and supported the monastery at Luxeuil that Columban had founded. Apart from some trouble in…

Gaston Paris was the greatest French philologist of his age. After a thorough education in German universities (notably under Friedrich Diez in Bonn) and at the École des Chartes in Paris, he succeeded his father as professor of French medieval literature at the Collège de France. He was one of the

Jean Perréal was a painter, architect, and sculptor, and the most important portrait painter in France at the beginning of the 16th century. Perréal was a court painter to the Bourbons and later worked for Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I of France. He traveled to Italy several times between

Matthew Paris was an English Benedictine monk and chronicler, known largely only through his voluminous and detailed writings, which constitute one of the most important sources of knowledge of events in Europe between 1235 and 1259. Paris was admitted a monk at the Abbey of St. Albans in England

Andreas Gursky: …of that scale is his Paris, Montparnasse (1993)—a panoramic image of a large high-density apartment building that stands 7 feet high × 13 feet wide (about 2.1 × 4 metres). The head-on, slightly elevated perspective captures the building, some sky, and some ground, offering the viewer an entry point into…

Paris Observatory, national astronomical observatory of France, under the direction of the Academy of Sciences. It was founded by Louis XIV at the instigation of J.-B. Colbert, and construction at the site in Paris began in 1667. Gian Domenico Cassini was the first of four generations of his family

Kellogg-Briand Pact, (August 27, 1928), multilateral agreement attempting to eliminate war as an instrument of national policy. It was the most grandiose of a series of peacekeeping efforts after World War I. Hoping to tie the United States into a system of protective alliances directed against a

Italy: French invasion of Italy: According to the Peace of Paris (May 15, 1796), King Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia-Piedmont was forced to cede Savoy and Nice to France and to grant safe passage to the French armies. On the same day, Napoleon’s army drove the Austrians out of Milan, pursuing them into…

Peace of Paris, (1783), collection of treaties concluding the American Revolution and signed by representatives of Great Britain on one side and the United States, France, and Spain on the other. Preliminary articles (often called the Preliminary Treaty of Paris) were signed at Paris between

Philippe d’Orléans, count de Paris was a pretender to the French throne after the death of Louis-Philippe (1850). The death of his father, Ferdinand, Duke d’Orléans, son and heir of King Louis-Philippe, in 1842 made the young Philippe heir to the throne and the candidate of the Orleanists. The

Philippe d’Orléans, count de Paris was a pretender to the French throne after the death of Louis-Philippe (1850). The death of his father, Ferdinand, Duke d’Orléans, son and heir of King Louis-Philippe, in 1842 made the young Philippe heir to the throne and the candidate of the Orleanists. The

plaster of paris, quick-setting gypsum plaster consisting of a fine white powder (calcium sulfate hemihydrate), which hardens when moistened and allowed to dry. Known since ancient times, plaster of paris is so called because of its preparation from the abundant gypsum found near Paris. Plaster of

Siege of Paris, major military engagement of the Franco-German (Prussian) War (1870–71), lasting from September 19, 1870 to January 28, 1871. After the defeat at the Battle of the Sedan, where French emperor Napoleon III surrendered, the new French Third Republic was not ready to accept German

Siege of Paris, Viking siege of Paris that lasted from November 885 to October 886. It was notable as the first occasion on which the Vikings dug themselves in for a long siege rather than conduct a hit-and-run raid or fight a battle. Their failure to capture the city, which was at the time the

Ry Cooder: …greatest impact in Wim Wenders’s Paris, Texas (1984), the vast panoramas of which provided the perfect visual counterpoint to Cooder’s moody, reverberating slide guitar.

Treaties of Paris, (1814–15), two treaties signed at Paris respectively in 1814 and 1815 that ended the Napoleonic Wars. The treaty signed on May 30, 1814, was between France on the one side and the Allies (Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, and Portugal) on the other. (Spain made the

Treaties of Paris, (1919–20), collectively the peace settlements concluding World War I and signed at sites around Paris. See Versailles, Treaty of (signed June 28, 1919); Saint-Germain, Treaty of (Sept. 10, 1919); Neuilly, Treaty of (Nov. 27, 1919); Trianon, Treaty of (June 4, 1920); and Sèvres,

United Kingdom: The Hundred Years’ War to 1360: …and stemming ultimately from the Treaty of Paris of 1259. By establishing that the kings of England owed homage to the kings of France for Gascony the treaty had created an awkward relationship. The building of bastides (fortified towns) by each side contributed to friction, as did piracy by English…

Charles III: By the treaty of Paris (1404) Charles not only renounced the Navarrese claims to Champagne but also ceded Cherbourg (which he had recovered from the English in 1393) and the countship of Évreux to Charles VI of France in exchange for Nemours, which was raised from a…

Jules, Cardinal Mazarin: Career as first minister of France.: …Lorraine to its duke (Treaty of Paris, Feb. 28, 1661). Thus, at his death, the former diplomat of the Holy See could rejoice at having “returned peace to Christendom.” He would have liked to have seen Europe take advantage of this peace by uniting in a crusade against the…

Treaty of Paris, (1783), treaty between Great Britain and the United States concluding the American Revolution. See Paris, Peace

France: Foreign relations: By the Treaty of Paris (March 1327) France recovered Agenais and Bazadais and imposed a heavy indemnity on England, but a number of issues were left unresolved. Meanwhile, having married the emperor Henry VII’s daughter, Charles was tempted to negotiate for the vacant imperial title in 1324;…

Treaty of Paris, (1763), treaty concluding the Franco-British conflicts of the Seven Years’ War (called the French and Indian War in North America) and signed by representatives of Great Britain and Hanover on one side and France and Spain on the other, with Portugal expressly understood to be

Ionian Islands: …islands were placed by the Treaty of Paris (1815) under the exclusive protection of Great Britain.

Germany: The Wars of Liberation: …of peace in the first Treaty of Paris (May 30) ended the Wars of Liberation except for the episode of the Hundred Days, when Napoleon briefly returned to power and was ultimately beaten at Waterloo. The western frontier of the German states was to remain essentially the same as at…

house of Bourbon: The Bourbon sovereignties: The Treaty of Paris of 1817, however, prescribed that on Marie-Louise’s death Parma should revert to the Bourbons, who in 1847 renounced Lucca to the Habsburgs of Tuscany nine weeks before succeeding her.

Treaty of Paris, (1856), treaty signed on March 30, 1856, in Paris that ended the Crimean War. The treaty was signed between Russia on one side and France, Great Britain, Sardinia-Piedmont, and Turkey on the other. Because the western European powers had fought the war to protect Ottoman Turkey

Treaty of Paris, (1898), treaty concluding the Spanish-American War. It was signed by representatives of Spain and the United States in Paris on Dec. 10, 1898 (see primary source document: Treaty of Paris). Armistice negotiations conducted in Washington, D.C., ended with the signing of a protocol

Austria: Restoration of sovereignty: During the Paris Peace Conference of 1946, an agreement had been signed guaranteeing the rights of the German-speaking population of Südtirol, a region that Italy had obtained after World War I. The Austrian government, claiming that the Italians had not lived up to their obligations, initiated bilateral…

international agreement: …first treaty was that of Paris, signed in 1951, establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC); the second, the Rome treaty, signed in 1957, establishing the European Economic Community (EEC); the third, the Rome treaty of the same date establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). A clause in…

Albigenses: …civilization, ended, politically, in the Treaty of Paris (1229), which destroyed the independence of the princes of the south but did not extinguish the heresy, in spite of the wholesale massacres of heretics during the war. The Inquisition, however, operating unremittingly in the south at Toulouse, Albi, and other towns…

Universities of Paris I–XIII, universities founded in 1970 under France’s 1968 Orientation Act, reforming higher education. They replaced the former University of Paris, one of the archetypal European universities, founded about 1170. The medieval University of Paris grew out of the cathedral

pari-mutuel, method of wagering introduced in France about 1870 by Parisian businessman Pierre Oller. It became one of the world’s most popular methods of betting on horse races. Most pari-mutuel systems are operated by the racetrack, although in France a national pari-mutuel system with offtrack

Italian literature: Social commitment and the new realism: …nera (1950; “Black Flag”) and Goffredo Parise’s Prete bello (1954; “The Handsome Priest”; Eng. trans. The Priest Among the Pigeons). In contrast to the more topical appeal of these writings, the great virtue of Pavese’s narrative was the universality of its characters and themes. Among his finest works may be…

parish, in some Christian church polities, a geographic unit served by a pastor or priest. It is a subdivision of a diocese. In the New Testament, the Greek word paroikia means sojourning, or temporary, residence. In the very early church, the parish was the entire body of Christians in a city