sample preparation: Theory: “Grab sampling,” in which one movement of a sampling device is used to select the sample, most often falls into this category, which is called nonprobabilistic sampling. Such methods can never satisfactorily represent highly heterogeneous material. In contrast, probabilistic sampling methods are techniques in which…

Armenian language: Origins of the language: Grabar, as the language of the first translation was known, became the standard for all subsequent literature, and its use produced what has come to be considered the golden age of Armenian literature. It concealed the noticeable dialectal variations of the spoken language and was…

Croatia: Independent Croatia: Opposition candidate Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović narrowly topped incumbent Josipović in balloting in January 2015, becoming Croatia’s first woman president. The election was seen as a referendum on Milanović’s centre-left government, and the defeat of Josipović, who had enjoyed widespread popularity throughout much of his term, signaled dissatisfaction with…

Amadeus William Grabau was an American geologist and paleontologist, known for his works on paleoecology and Chinese stratigraphy. Grabau was a member of the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, from 1892 until 1897 and of the Rensselaer Polytechnical Institute from 1899

Christian Dietrich Grabbe was a German dramatist whose plays anticipated Expressionism and film technique. Grabbe studied law in Leipzig (1820–22) and made unsuccessful attempts at acting and directing in Berlin. After quarrelling with the poet Heinrich Heine and members of Young Germany (a

horst and graben: graben, elongate fault blocks of the Earth’s crust that have been raised and lowered, respectively, relative to their surrounding areas as a direct effect of faulting. Horsts and grabens may range in size from blocks a few centimetres wide to tens of kilometres wide; the…

Bluesky: Bluesky’s business structure and ownership: …primarily owned by software engineer Jay Graber. Its board of directors includes Jeremie Miller, the inventor of Jabber; Mike Masnick, author of the paper “Protocols, Not Platforms,” which inspired the Bluesky project; and Kinjal Shah, a general partner at Blockchain Capital, a venture capital firm.

Betty Grable was an American film actress and dancer who was one of the leading box office draws of the 1940s. She starred primarily in musicals with formulaic plots that embraced her wholesome, good-natured screen image and featured athletic dance numbers which showed off her shapely legs. Grable

Betty Grable was an American film actress and dancer who was one of the leading box office draws of the 1940s. She starred primarily in musicals with formulaic plots that embraced her wholesome, good-natured screen image and featured athletic dance numbers which showed off her shapely legs. Grable

Władysław Grabski was a political economist, prime minister of Poland (1920, 1923–25), and statesman who reorganized Poland’s monetary and financial system. A Socialist in his youth, Grabski later joined the National Democracy Party and was elected a member of three successive sessions of the Duma

José Pereira da Graça Aranha was a Brazilian novelist and diplomat, best remembered for his novel Canaã (1902; Canaan, 1920), in which he explored the conflicts of the Brazilian ethnic melting pot through the varied perspectives and problems of two German immigrants. With its philosophical

Caetano Veloso is a Brazilian songwriter and musician who emerged in the 1960s as a leading figure in Brazil’s Tropicália movement. The sensual intelligence of his music, as well as the breadth of traditions from which he drew, made him a national hero and the object of much admiration abroad.

Kosovo: Cultural institutions: …monasteries of Dečani (Albanian: Deçan), Gračanica (Graçanica; near Pristina), and Peć (Pejë), as well as the Church of the Virgin of Ljeviša (near Prizren). In 2004 the Dečani monastery was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site; the others were inscribed in 2006. Two of the oldest Muslim sites are the…

Gaius Gracchus was a Roman tribune (123–122 bce), who reenacted the agrarian reforms of his brother, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, and who proposed other measures to lessen the power of the senatorial nobility. Gaius was the son of a Roman aristocrat whose family had regularly held the highest

Gaius Gracchus was a Roman tribune (123–122 bce), who reenacted the agrarian reforms of his brother, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, and who proposed other measures to lessen the power of the senatorial nobility. Gaius was the son of a Roman aristocrat whose family had regularly held the highest

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was a Roman tribune (133 bce) who sponsored agrarian reforms to restore the class of small independent farmers and who was assassinated in a riot sparked by his senatorial opponents. His brother was Gaius Sempronius Gracchus. Born into an aristocratic Roman family,

Grace, in Greek religion, one of a group of goddesses of fertility. The name refers to the “pleasing” or “charming” appearance of a fertile field or garden. The number of Graces varied in different legends, but usually there were three: Aglaia (Brightness), Euphrosyne (Joyfulness), and Thalia

W.R. Grace & Co., American industrial company, with international interests in specialty chemicals, construction materials, coatings, and sealants. It is headquartered in Columbia, Maryland. The company grew out of a Peruvian land, natural resource, and shipping enterprise formed by William R.

grace, in Christian theology, the spontaneous, unmerited gift of the divine favour in the salvation of sinners, and the divine influence operating in individuals for their regeneration and sanctification. The English term is the usual translation for the Greek charis, which occurs in the New

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE), U.S.-German Earth-mapping mission consisting of twin spacecraft GRACE 1 and 2 (nicknamed Tom and Jerry after the cartoon characters). GRACE 1 and 2 were launched on March 17, 2002. By tracking the precise distance between the two spacecraft and their

Grace Abounding, spiritual autobiography of John Bunyan, written during the first years of his 12-year imprisonment for Nonconformist religious activities and published in 1666. Bunyan’s effort to obtain an absolutely honest, unadorned rendering of the truth about his own spiritual experience

Jane Fonda: … in the Netflix television comedy Grace and Frankie (2015–22), about two women whose husbands leave them for each other. In 2017 Fonda portrayed a widow who befriends her longtime neighbor (played by Robert Redford) in the Netflix movie Our Souls at Night. She later starred in Book Club (2018), a…

Olivia Newton-John: Career: …Stronger than Before (2005) and Grace and Gratitude (2006) include inspirational and meditative songs. LIV ON (2016) deals with loss and healing. Newton-John also released several Christmas albums, including This Christmas (2012) with Travolta and Friends for Christmas (2016) with British-born Australian singer John Farnham. From 2014 to 2016 she…

Derek Jacobi: …My Week with Marilyn (2011), Grace of Monaco (2014), and Effie Gray (2014). He reteamed with Branagh for the movie adaptations of Cinderella (2015) and Murder on the Orient Express (2017). In between the latter films, he reunited with the Cinderella cast onstage in Branagh’s production of Romeo and Juliet…

Grace Kelly was an American actress of films and television, known for her stately beauty and reserve. She won an Oscar for best actress for her performance in The Country Girl (1954) but was perhaps better known for her films with Alfred Hitchcock, including Rear Window (1954) and To Catch a Thief

warship: The age of gun and sail: …of one of these, the Grâce Dieu, reflected the clinker-built construction of the Viking long ship, but they had a keel to beam ratio of about 2.5:1 and now carried a second mast.

grace note, musical note constituting or being part of an ornament. See

Rita Dove: Poetry: …Side of the House (1988), Grace Notes (1989), and Mother Love (1995), the last of which is a book of sonnets. On the Bus with Rosa Parks (1999) is a sequence of poems inspired by Parks and the American civil rights movement; it was a finalist for the National Book…

Derek Jacobi: …My Week with Marilyn (2011), Grace of Monaco (2014), and Effie Gray (2014). He reteamed with Branagh for the movie adaptations of Cinderella (2015) and Murder on the Orient Express (2017). In between the latter films, he reunited with the Cinderella cast onstage in Branagh’s production of Romeo and Juliet…

Grace Kelly was an American actress of films and television, known for her stately beauty and reserve. She won an Oscar for best actress for her performance in The Country Girl (1954) but was perhaps better known for her films with Alfred Hitchcock, including Rear Window (1954) and To Catch a Thief

Chuck Lorre: Transition into television: …had somewhat better luck with Grace Under Fire, starring comedian Brett Butler, although he was fired following the first season after clashing with Butler. Another short-lived job came with Cybill, featuring Cybill Shepherd, in which Lorre lasted 18 episodes in charge. He finally had his first sustained success with Dharma…

Kilkenny: …Almshouse dates from 1594, and Grace’s Old Castle, which was used as a jail beginning in 1566, is now a courthouse.

Charles Emmanuel Grace was an African American revivalist and founder of the United House of Prayer for All People. After spending his youth in Cabo Verde, Grace immigrated to the United States in 1904 and Anglicized his name. He settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts, and set up his first “House of

lettre de cachet: …reserved the right to grant lettres de grâce, or pardons, to persons who had been convicted by the courts.

Ghostbusters: Reboots: …and 12-year-old daughter Phoebe (Mckenna Grace). Many members of the 1984 cast returned for the 2021 reboot, with the exception of Ramis, who died in 2014, and Moranis. Decidedly less controversial than the 2016 version, Ghostbusters: Afterlife was sufficiently profitable for Sony to greenlight a sequel. Ghostbusters: Frozen Empire…

Nancy Grace is an American legal current-affairs commentator and outspoken champion of victims’ rights, perhaps best known as the anchor of the television program Nancy Grace (2005–16). Grace grew up in Georgia. She intended to pursue a career as an English professor until, when she was 19 years

Patricia Grace is a New Zealand writer who was a foundational figure in the rise and development of Māori fiction. Her work has been acclaimed for its depiction of Māori culture in general as well as Māori diversity, and she helped give a voice to her culture and to reveal to the larger world what

W.R. Grace & Co.: Peter Grace, from 1945 to 1989, W.R. Grace & Co. evolved from an agricultural and transportation firm with heavy investments in Peru and Chile into a diversified chemical giant. The shift away from Latin American operations began in 1950, and in 1970 the company’s Peruvian…

Pilgrimage of Grace, (1536), a rising in the northern counties of England, the only overt immediate discontent shown against the Reformation legislation of King Henry VIII. Part of the resentment was caused by attempts, especially under Henry’s minister Thomas Cromwell, to increase government

William Gilbert Grace was the greatest cricketer in Victorian England, whose dominating physical presence, gusto, and inexhaustible energy made him a national figure. He evolved the modern principles of batting and achieved many notable performances on rough and unpredictable wickets, such as are

William R. Grace was an American shipowner and founder of W.R. Grace & Co., a corporation that was for many years a dominant influence on the economy of South America’s west coast and, under the management of his heirs, became a multibillion-dollar conglomerate in the late 20th century. Grace ran

William R. Grace was an American shipowner and founder of W.R. Grace & Co., a corporation that was for many years a dominant influence on the economy of South America’s west coast and, under the management of his heirs, became a multibillion-dollar conglomerate in the late 20th century. Grace ran

Roxane Gay: Hunger, Not That Bad, and other works: …Lynne Oliver), the short-story collection Graceful Burdens, and The Selected Works of Audre Lorde, which she edited. In 2023 Gay published Opinions: A Decade of Arguments, Criticisms, and Minding Other People’s Business, a collection of some of her most renowned essays and opinion pieces. The following year she collaborated with…

Ladysmith Black Mambazo: …Simon on his Grammy Award-winning Graceland, one of the best-selling albums of the 1980s, and in 1987 Ladysmith Black Mambazo won its own Grammy in the best traditional folk recording category for the album Shaka Zulu.

Graceland, mansion that was American singer Elvis Presley’s home from 1957 to 1977. Today it is a major tourist attraction in Memphis, Tennessee, U.S. Presley is buried at Graceland, as are several of his family members, including his parents, daughter, and grandson. Presley’s music changed the

Community of Christ: The church conducts Graceland University in Lamoni, Iowa. Temple School, a ministerial and leadership seminary, is in Independence.

Ireland: Charles I (1625–49) and the Commonwealth (1649–60): …religious concessions, known as “the Graces,” which were designed to secure the status of the Old English by permitting Roman Catholics to engage in various public activities. But this policy was abandoned by Thomas Wentworth, Charles’s lord deputy of Ireland from 1633 to 1640 and later the earl of…

Baltasar Gracián was a philosopher and writer known as the leading Spanish exponent of conceptism (conceptismo), a style of dealing with ideas that involves the use of terse and subtle displays of exaggerated wit. After studying at Calatayud and Zaragoza, Gracián entered the Jesuit order at the age

Baltasar Gracián was a philosopher and writer known as the leading Spanish exponent of conceptism (conceptismo), a style of dealing with ideas that involves the use of terse and subtle displays of exaggerated wit. After studying at Calatayud and Zaragoza, Gracián entered the Jesuit order at the age

Gracias, city, southwestern Honduras. It lies in the valley of the Mejocote River, at the foot of Las Minas Hill in the Celaque Mountains. Founded in 1536, it is one of the oldest cities in Honduras. In the 16th and 17th centuries it was a major mining and administrative centre, but it declined in

Cape Gracias a Dios, extreme southeastern Honduras and northeastern Nicaragua, on an island forming part of the Coco River delta. It marks the end of the most noticeable protrusion of land into the Caribbean Sea between the Yucatán Peninsula and the South American mainland. It lies in the northern

Violeta Parra: Her best-known song, “Gracias a la Vida” (“Thanks to Life”), endures throughout the West as a beloved and poignant folk song.

Memo Gracida is a Mexican polo player considered the best of his generation. He held a number of records in the sport and was part of a distinguished polo-playing family. Gracida grew up on polo—his father, Guillermo (“Memo”) Gracida, Sr., and uncles won the U.S. Open in 1946, and his cousins and

Memo Gracida is a Mexican polo player considered the best of his generation. He held a number of records in the sport and was part of a distinguished polo-playing family. Gracida grew up on polo—his father, Guillermo (“Memo”) Gracida, Sr., and uncles won the U.S. Open in 1946, and his cousins and

Ultimate Fighting Championship: Origin of UFC: Davie, Brazilian martial artist Rorion Gracie, and executives of the Semaphore Entertainment Group (SEG), including Bob Meyrowitz, David Isaacs, and Campbell McLaren. The first edition of the competition, which came to be known as UFC 1, was held in 1993 in a caged ring at the McNichols Sports Arena…

mixed martial arts: Notable champions: Royce Gracie of Brazil helped bring MMA to the forefront in the 1990s. The 6-foot 1-inch (1.85-meter), 180-pound (82-kg) Gracie, who won UFC 1 in 1993, was particularly deft at using his jujitsu skills while lying on his back to defend against attacks or to…

agar: >Gracilaria (division Rhodophyta). Best known as a solidifying component of bacteriological culture media, it is also used in canning meat, fish, and poultry; in cosmetics, medicines, and dentistry; as a clarifying agent in brewing and wine making; as a thickening agent in ice cream, pastries,…

Osteodontokeratic tool industry: …where the first specimen of Australopithecus africanus was found, and at Makapansgat, where other specimens of A. africanus were found. Dart proposed that these fossils were tools used by A.africanus, an early hominid species. He postulated that teeth were used as saws and scrapers, long bones as clubs, and so…

Lepidoptera: Annotated classification: …miners or stem borers Families Gracillariidae and Douglasiidae Approximately 2,000 species worldwide whose larvae have degenerative legs and mandibles; adults with narrow, long-fringed wings often with metallic markings; larvae mostly leaf miners or stem borers, sometimes greatly flattened. Superfamily Hesperioidea 3,500 species worldwide

Lepidoptera: Annotated classification: Superfamily Gracillarioidea Approximately 2,300 species worldwide; small moths; larvae are mainly leaf miners or stem borers Families Gracillariidae and Douglasiidae Approximately 2,000 species worldwide whose larvae have degenerative legs and mandibles; adults with narrow, long-fringed wings often with metallic markings; larvae mostly

Graciosa Island, volcanic island, northernmost of the central Azores, east-central Atlantic Ocean. The island has an area of 23 square miles (60 square km) and reaches a maximum elevation of 1,338 feet (408 metres) at the summit of Enxôfre Caldera, a volcanic crater. Dense vegetation is supported

Graciosa Island, volcanic island, northernmost of the central Azores, east-central Atlantic Ocean. The island has an area of 23 square miles (60 square km) and reaches a maximum elevation of 1,338 feet (408 metres) at the summit of Enxôfre Caldera, a volcanic crater. Dense vegetation is supported

Paraná: …rising to the peak of Serra da Graciosa (6,193 feet [1,888 metres]), forms a watershed between the coastal region and the first of the three successive plateaus farther westward, each lower than the one before. The first plateau, which lies at a height of between 2,700 and 3,000 feet (800…

grackle, any of several species of birds belonging to the family Icteridae (order Passeriformes) that have iridescent black plumage and long tails. Grackles use their stout, pointed bills to snap up insects, dig grubs from the soil, and kill small vertebrates, including fishes and baby birds; they

mynah: The hill mynah (Gracula religiosa) of southern Asia, called the grackle in India, is renowned as a “talker.” It is about 25 cm (10 inches) long, glossy black, with white wing patches, yellow wattles, and orangish bill and legs. In the wild it chuckles and shrieks;…

mynah: The hill mynah (Gracula religiosa) of southern Asia, called the grackle in India, is renowned as a “talker.” It is about 25 cm (10 inches) long, glossy black, with white wing patches, yellow wattles, and orangish bill and legs. In the wild it chuckles and shrieks;…

Bosnia and Herzegovina: Ottoman Bosnia: …a charismatic young kapetan called Husein seized power in Bosnia, imprisoning the vizier in Travnik. With an army of 25,000 men, Husein then marched into Kosovo to negotiate with the Ottoman grand vizier, demanding local autonomy for Bosnia and an end to the reform process there. But the grand vizier…

rhetoric: Elements of rhetoric: …and requires no answer), and gradatio (a progressive advance from one statement to another until a climax is achieved). However, a certain slippage in the categories trope and scheme became inevitable, not simply because rhetoricians were inconsistent in their use of terms but because well-constructed discourse reflects a fusion of…

cancer: Grading and staging: The grade and stage are major factors governing the choice of therapy. In many cases grading and staging schemes can help to predict the behavior of a tumor and thus aid in determining a patient’s prognosis and the most-appropriate approach to treatment.

mining: Delineation: …often referred to as its grade. Grade may exhibit considerable variation throughout a deposit. Moreover, there is a certain grade below which it is not profitable to mine a mineral even though it is still present in the ore. This is called the mine cutoff grade. And, if the material…

chordate: Critical appraisal: …these requirements is called a grade and may be used as an informal group. Groups that do not contain the common ancestor, and therefore had two separate origins, are said to be polyphyletic. Such polyphyletic grades, which would put whales together with fish or birds together with bats, have generally…

traffic control: Conventional control techniques: These areas, called rail-highway grade crossings, pose particular control and safety problems. Because rail trains are of substantial mass and often travel at high speeds, any collision with a road vehicle is likely to severely damage the road vehicle and injure or kill its occupant(s). Because trains cannot…

diesel engine: Fuel for diesels: …grades of diesel fuel oils:

diesel engine: Fuel for diesels: Grade Low Sulfur No. 2-D—A general-purpose, middle distillate fuel for automotive diesel engines requiring low sulfur fuel. It is also suitable for use in non-automotive applications, especially in conditions of varying speed and load. Grade No. 1-D—A special purpose, light distillate fuel for automotive diesel…

diesel engine: Fuel for diesels: Grade No. 1-D—A special purpose, light distillate fuel for automotive diesel engines in applications requiring higher volatility than that provided by Grade No. 2-D fuels. Grade No. 2-D—A general-purpose, middle distillate fuel for automotive diesel engines, which is also suitable for use in non-automotive applications,…

diesel engine: Fuel for diesels: Grade No. 2-D—A general-purpose, middle distillate fuel for automotive diesel engines, which is also suitable for use in non-automotive applications, especially in conditions of frequently varying speed and load. Grade No. 4-D—A heavy distillate fuel, or a blend of distillate and residual oil, for low-…

diesel engine: Fuel for diesels: Water and sediment in fuels can be harmful to engine operation; clean fuel is essential to…

grain size scale, in sedimentology, division of a continuous range of particle sizes into a series of discrete groups. Several such scales have been devised for the purpose of standardizing terms and providing a basis for statistical analysis. On most scales, the finest particles are designated

graded school, an elementary or secondary school in which the instructional program is divided into school years, known as grades or forms. At the end of each academic year, pupils move from one grade to the next higher in a group, with only an occasional outstanding achiever allowed to “skip” a

Thoroughbred: …the United States and a half-bred in Great Britain. Grade Thoroughbreds may be used as hunters, polo ponies, stock horses, or riding horses, depending on their training.

Chaim Grade was a Yiddish poet, short-story writer, and novelist who was one of the last surviving secularized Yiddish writers to have been educated in a European yeshiva (rabbinical seminary). His fiction reflects an intimate knowledge of the complexities and breadth of that vanished culture and

Lew Grade, Baron Grade of Elstree was a Russian-born British motion picture, television, and theatrical producer whose company, Associated Television, developed many hit TV series beginning in the 1950s, including The Avengers. His films include The Return of the Pink Panther (1975) and Sophie’s

Zagreb: …medieval settlements on the hill: Grič, the civil settlement, which was renamed Gradec (“Fortress”) when it was encircled by walls that were built to defend against the Mongols in the 13th century; and Kaptol, the ecclesiastical settlement, which was fortified in the 16th century. These two towns continued as rival…

stratification: …fluvial or eolian deposits, and graded bedding, which reflects transport by density (or turbidity) currents or, in certain cases, varved deposits.

graded school, an elementary or secondary school in which the instructional program is divided into school years, known as grades or forms. At the end of each academic year, pupils move from one grade to the next higher in a group, with only an occasional outstanding achiever allowed to “skip” a

telecommunications media: Optical fibres: Graded-index (GI) fibre reduces multimode dispersion by grading the refractive index of the core so that it smoothly tapers between the core centre and the cladding. Another type of fibre, known as single-mode (SM) fibre, eliminates multimode dispersion by reducing the diameter of the core…

grader, in excavation, precision finishing vehicle for final shaping of surfaces on which pavement will be placed. Between its front and rear wheels a grader carries a broad mechanically or hydraulically controlled blade that can be extended from either side. Either end of the blade can be raised

Gradgrind, fictional character, the proprietor of an experimental school where only facts are taught, in Charles Dickens’s novel Hard Times (1854). For Dickens he embodies the unsympathetic qualities of the utilitarian social philosophy prevalent in Victorian

gradient, in mathematics, a differential operator applied to a three-dimensional vector-valued function to yield a vector whose three components are the partial derivatives of the function with respect to its three variables. The symbol for gradient is ∇. Thus, the gradient of a function f, written

canals and inland waterways: Modern waterway engineering: …waterways are confined to moderate gradients, and, where these change direction, the summit pounds (ponds) require an adequate supply of water, while valley pounds need facilities for disposal of surplus.

chromatography: Liquid chromatography: In a process termed gradient elution, the concentration of well-retained solutes in the mobile phase is increased by constantly changing the composition, and hence the polarity, of the mobile phase during the separation.

regeneration: Polarity and gradient theory: Each living thing exhibits polarity, one example of which is the differentiation of an organism into a head, or forward part, and a tail, or hind part. Regenerating parts are no exception; they exhibit polarity by always growing in a distal direction (away…

gradient wind, wind that accounts for air flow along a curved trajectory. It is an extension of the concept of geostrophic wind—i.e., the wind assumed to move along straight and parallel isobars (lines of equal pressure). The gradient wind represents the actual wind better than does the geostrophic

metamorphic rock: Temperature: …in Earth, known as the geothermal gradient, is the increase in temperature per unit distance of depth; it is given by the tangent to the local geotherm. The magnitude of the geothermal gradient thus varies with the shape of the geotherm. In regions with high surface heat flow, such as…

cereal farming: Grading: Wheat is an important commodity in international commerce, and many attempts have been made to ensure reliability in grading. In North America excellent grading allows the buyer to ascertain the type and standard of wheat acquired. Canada has statutory grades for most of its…

dairy product: Quality concerns: …Department of Agriculture (USDA) assigns quality grades to butter based on its score on a standard quality point scale. Grade AA is the highest possible grade; Grade AA butter must achieve a numerical score of 93 out of 100 points based on its aroma, flavor, and texture. Salt (if present)…

rock: Porosity: …and is referred to as grading. A well-graded sediment is a (geologically) poorly sorted one, and a poorly graded sediment is a well-sorted one.

backcross: Grading usually refers to the mating of average, or “grade,” females to a superior male and then backcrossing the female offspring to the same or a similar sire. In plants, backcrossing is used to introduce desirable traits—such as disease and pest resistance, salt and drought…

Aquileia: …patriarch Paolino I fled to Grado (the earlier foreport of Aquileia) after the Lombard invasion. When Candianus, who was loyal to Rome, was elected metropolitan at Grado in 607, the suffragan bishops of the Lombard mainland elected an abbot, John, at Aquileia, and he continued the schismatic policy of his…

Gregorian chant: The Gradual, introduced in the 4th century, also developed from a refrain between psalm verses. Later it became: opening melody (chorus)—psalm verse or verses in a virtuosically embellished psalmodic structure (soloist)—opening melody (chorus), repeated in whole or in part. The Alleluia is of 4th-century Eastern origin.…