algebra: Commerce and abacists in the European Renaissance: …the first French algebra text, Nicolas Chuquet’s Triparty en la science des nombres (1484; “The Science of Numbers in Three Parts”). As part of a discussion on how to use the Hindu-Arabic numerals, Triparty contained relatively complicated symbolic expressions, such as R214pR2180 (meaning:

Chuquicamata, mining and smelting centre, northern Chile. It lies near Calama at 9,350 feet (2,850 metres) above sea level and is the largest open-pit mine in the world. Large-scale operations started in 1915. Tapping one of the world’s largest-known copper deposits, it produces more than

Sucre, judicial capital of Bolivia. (La Paz is the country’s administrative capital.) Sucre lies in a fertile valley crossed by the Cachimayo River, at an elevation of 9,153 feet (2,790 metres) above sea level. It was founded in 1539 by the conquistador Pedro de Anzúrez on the site of a Charcas

El Paraíso, Late Preceramic site in the present-day Chillón Valley on the central Peruvian coast, generally believed to date just before the beginning of the Initial Period (c. 2100–1800 bc). It is notable for its large mud and rock apartment-like dwelling units. It is believed to be roughly

Chur, capital, Graubünden (Grisons) canton, eastern Switzerland. It lies on the Plessur River in the Rhine Valley. The meeting point of roads from Italy over several Alpine passes, it was important in Roman times as Curia Raetorum, the centre of the Roman province of Raetia. First mentioned in 452

church, in architecture, a building designed for Christian worship. The earliest churches were based on the plan of the pagan Roman basilica (q.v.), or hall of justice. The plan generally included a nave (q.v.), or hall, with a flat timber roof, in which the crowd gathered; one or two side aisles

church, in Christian doctrine, the Christian religious community as a whole, or a body or organization of Christian believers. The Greek word ekklēsia, which came to mean church, was originally applied in the Classical period to an official assembly of citizens. In the Septuagint (Greek)

church and state, the concept, largely Christian, that the religious and political powers in society are clearly distinct, though both claim the people’s loyalty. A brief treatment of church and state follows. For full treatment of the separation of religion and politics, see secularism. For full

Church Army, organization of lay evangelists within the Church of England, founded on the model of the Salvation Army for evangelistic purposes in the slums of London in 1882 by Wilson Carlile. Later it became primarily concerned with social work and rehabilitation. After a two-year residential

First Letter of Clement, a letter to the Christian church in Corinth from the church of Rome, traditionally ascribed to and almost certainly written by St. Clement I of Rome circa 96 ce. An important piece of patristic literature by an Apostolic Father, it is extant in a 2nd-century Latin

Today in History—March 15: The Nazi Seizure of Church Bells: …called for the seizure of church bells across the land.

Western architecture: From the 19th to the early 20th century: The Church Building Act of 1818, providing for the expenditure of £1,000,000 on churches, emphasized Gothic as the ecclesiastical style. The commissioners responsible for the spending of this money (together with an additional £500,000 voted in 1824) discovered that a Gothic church cost less to build…

Church Buttes, eroded sandstone cliffs in Uinta county, extreme southwestern Wyoming, about 45 miles (72 km) west-southwest of Rock Springs. Named by Mormon pioneers for their steeple-like needles, the buttes rise 75 feet (23 metres) above the surrounding hills, to an elevation of 6,351 feet (1,936

Church Commissioners, in the Church of England, organization established by vote of the church’s national assembly in 1947 that joined two corporations, Queen Anne’s Bounty and the Ecclesiastical Commissioners (the actual merger took place in 1948); it helps with the expenses of poor parishes. The

COINTELPRO: Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, commonly referred to as the “Church Committee,” for its chairman, Senator Frank Church of Idaho. However, millions of pages of documents remain unreleased, and many released documents are heavily censored. In its final report,…

Wales: Political radicalism: …Education Act (1889) and the Church Disestablishment Act (1914), was a parliamentary success matched in cultural life by the founding of three university colleges and the federal University of Wales and the securing of a royal charter for the establishment of the National Library of Wales and the National Museum…

Karl Barth: Church Dogmatics of Karl Barth: …massive study Kirchliche Dogmatik (1932–67; Church Dogmatics), a remarkable contribution to 20th-century theology. Church Dogmatics grew year by year out of his class lectures; though incomplete, it eventually filled four volumes in 12 parts, of which Barth regarded volume 2, parts 1 and 2, which are devoted to the doctrine…

Church Father, any of the great bishops and other eminent Christian teachers of the early centuries whose writings remained as a court of appeal for their successors, especially in reference to controverted points of faith or practice. See patristic

Howard Thurman: …Howard to help found the Church for the Fellowship of All Peoples (also known as Fellowship Church) in San Francisco, the first congregation in the United States that encouraged participation in its spiritual life regardless of religious or ethnic background. Thurman stayed there until 1953, when he assumed the deanship…

Church Missionary Society (CMS), society founded in London in 1799 as the Society for Missions in Africa and the East, by Evangelical clergy of the Church of England (those who stressed biblical faith, personal conversion, and piety). In 1812 it was renamed the Church Missionary Society for Africa

Church Missionary Society (CMS), society founded in London in 1799 as the Society for Missions in Africa and the East, by Evangelical clergy of the Church of England (those who stressed biblical faith, personal conversion, and piety). In 1812 it was renamed the Church Missionary Society for Africa

church mode, in music, any one of eight scalar arrangements of whole and half tones, derived by medieval theorists, most likely from early Christian vocal convention. The Eastern church was doubtless influenced by ancient Hebrew modal music. Its basic chant formulas were codified as early as the

liturgical music, music written for performance in a religious rite of worship. The term is most commonly associated with the Christian tradition. Developing from the musical practices of the Jewish synagogues, which allowed the cantor an improvised charismatic song, early Christian services

Church of Christ, any of several conservative Protestant churches, found chiefly in the United States. They are strongest in parts of the Midwest and in the western and southern parts of the country. Each church is known locally as a Church of Christ and its members as Christians, and each church

Christian Science, religious denomination founded in the United States in 1879 by Mary Baker Eddy (1821–1910), author of the book that contains the definitive statement of its teaching, Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures (1875). It is widely known for its highly controversial practice of

First Letter of Clement, a letter to the Christian church in Corinth from the church of Rome, traditionally ascribed to and almost certainly written by St. Clement I of Rome circa 96 ce. An important piece of patristic literature by an Apostolic Father, it is extant in a 2nd-century Latin

Stephen Dobyns: …searches for his missing fiancée; The Church of Dead Girls (1997), about the murder of three young girls and the impact their deaths have on a small town; and the comic thriller Is Fat Bob Dead Yet? (2015). Eating Naked (2000) is a collection of short stories.

Reformed Church of France, church organized in 1938 by merging several Reformed churches that had developed in France during and after the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. During the early part of the Reformation, Protestant movements made slow progress in France. Yet reforming movements within

Aryan Nations, prominent Christian Identity-based hate group founded in the United States in the 1970s. In the 1970s and ’80s the Aryan Nations developed a strong network comprising neo-Nazi, skinhead, Ku Klux Klan (KKK), white supremacist, and militia groups, many of which congregated and

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS), church that traces its origins to a religion founded by Joseph Smith in the United States in 1830. The term Mormon, often used to refer to members of this church, comes from the Book of Mormon, which was published by Smith in 1830; use of the term

Vienna: Layout and architecture: The Church of St. Charles, a vast structure dedicated to St. Charles Borromeo, was erected just outside the city walls in 1716–39. This Baroque edifice is fronted by a severely classical porch of columns in ancient Roman style, and before it stand spirally decorated twin columns…

Church of Satan, counterculture group founded in the United States in the 1960s by Anton Szandor LaVey, born Howard Stanton Levey. Contrary to its name, the church did not promote “evil” but rather humanistic values. LaVey, a former carnival worker, had absorbed a variety of occult and ritual-magic

Scientology, international movement that emerged in the 1950s in response to the thought of L. Ron Hubbard, a writer who introduced his ideas to the general public in Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health (1950). Hubbard’s stated goal was to analyze humankind’s mental aberrations and to

Scientology: Organization of the church: …churches and organizations is the Church of Scientology International (CSI), which coordinates the activities of the movement and promotes the church internationally. The Religious Technology Center (RTC) has ultimate ecclesiastical authority for the teachings of Scientology, owns all the movement’s trademarks, and grants the churches and organizations their licenses. The…

Church of the Assumption, 12th-century Crusader church in Jerusalem that encloses a tomb that is venerated by Christians as the Tomb of the Virgin Mary. The church nestles in the foothills of the Mount of Olives in the Kidron Valley. The ancient tomb is within the remains of a subterranean

Church of the Holy Sepulchre, church built on the traditional site of Jesus’ Crucifixion and burial. According to the Bible (John 19:41–42), his tomb was close to the place of the Crucifixion, and so the church was planned to enclose the site of both the cross and the tomb. The Church of the Holy

Church of the Nativity, ancient church built over the grotto that is believed to be the site of the manger in which Jesus was born in Bethlehem. The Church of the Nativity is the oldest church in the Holy Land. It was first built about 326, commissioned by the Roman emperor Constantine I and his

Eastern Orthodoxy: The episcopate: …theology also emphasizes that the office of bishop is the highest among the sacramental ministries and that there is therefore no divinely established authority over that of the bishop in his own community, or diocese. Neither the local churches nor the bishops, however, can or should live in isolation. The…

Louisiana: Constitutional framework: The parish (county), the municipality, and the special district are the units of local government. There are 64 parishes, with land areas that vary from roughly 180 square miles (466 square km) in Orleans parish near the city of New Orleans to more than 1,300 square…

Pieter Saenredam: …draftsman, pioneer of the “church portrait,” and the first Dutch artist to abandon the tradition of fanciful architectural painting in favour of a new realism in the rendering of specific buildings. His paintings of churches show a scrupulous neatness and precision, combined with subtle atmospheric light and tonal unity…

Sunday school, school for religious education, usually for children and young people and usually a part of a church or parish. The movement has been important primarily in Protestantism. It has been the foremost vehicle for teaching the principles of the Christian religion and the Bible. Although

Old Church Slavonic language, Slavic language based primarily on the Macedonian (South Slavic) dialects around Thessalonica (Thessaloníki). It was used in the 9th century by the missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius, who were natives of Thessalonica, for preaching to the Moravian Slavs and for

sonata da chiesa, a type of sonata, most commonly a Baroque instrumental work with several (often four) movements, originally thought appropriate for church. The designation was not universal; such works were often labeled simply sonata. Compare sonata da

Papal States, territories of central Italy over which the pope had sovereignty from 756 to 1870. Included were the modern Italian regions of Lazio (Latium), Umbria, and Marche and part of Emilia-Romagna, though the extent of the territory, along with the degree of papal control, varied over the

agrimony: Common species: Common agrimony, also known as church steeples (Agrimonia eupatoria), is a herbaceous hardy perennial that is native to Europe and North Africa but is widespread in other northern temperate regions. Inhabiting hedge banks and the borders of fields, the plant grows to about 120 cm…

Church Universal and Triumphant, the largest of several groups that emerged from I AM religious activity, a movement centred upon avowed contact with the Ascended Masters of the Great White Brotherhood, the order of spiritual beings, “the saints robed in white” that adherents believe guide the

Church World Service, worldwide relief and rehabilitation agency, from 1951 to 1963 a department of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., and from 1964 incorporated in the Division of Overseas Ministries of the council. Organized in 1946 as an independent agency, it took

church year, annual cycle of seasons and days observed in Christian churches in commemoration of the life, death, and Resurrection of Jesus Christ and of Christian virtues as exhibited in the lives of the saints. The church year has deep roots in the primitive human impulse to mark certain times

Church’s thesis, a principle formulated by the 20th-century American logician Alonzo Church, stating that the recursive functions are the only functions that can be mechanically calculated. The theorem implies that the procedures of arithmetic cannot be used to decide the consistency of statements

Church’s thesis, a principle formulated by the 20th-century American logician Alonzo Church, stating that the recursive functions are the only functions that can be mechanically calculated. The theorem implies that the procedures of arithmetic cannot be used to decide the consistency of statements

Alonzo Church was a U.S. mathematician. He earned a Ph.D. from Princeton University. His contributions to number theory and the theories of algorithms and computability laid the foundations of computer science. The rule known as Church’s theorem or Church’s thesis (proposed independently by Alan M.

King Philip’s War: Benjamin Church’s Plymouth command, a non-Connecticut exception, had utilized Indian allies since the beginning of the war, and he succeeded in killing Philip in August 1676. By September the colonists and their Indian allies had destroyed much of the Native American opposition in southern New…

Charlotte Church is a Welsh singer and television host best known for her powerful soprano voice and for being both the youngest musician to reach number one on the classical music album chart in the U.K. and the youngest female singer to break into the U.K. top 40 albums chart. Church is also

Frank Church was an American politician from Idaho who served four terms in the U.S. Senate (1957–81). Church, a prominent figure in the Democratic Party, played a key role in the anti-Vietnam War movement and in the reform of U.S. intelligence activities. Church enrolled at Stanford University in

Frederic Edwin Church was an American Romantic landscape painter who was one of the most prominent members of the Hudson River school. Church studied with the painter Thomas Cole at his home in Catskill, New York, and they remained friends throughout their lives. From the beginning Church sought

Mary Eliza Church Terrell was an American social activist who was cofounder and first president of the National Association of Colored Women. She was an early civil rights advocate, an educator, an author, and a lecturer on woman suffrage and rights for African Americans. Mary Church was the

Port-Royal: …period of calm, called the Peace of the Church, prevailed. The houses of Paris and Les Champs were separated, the latter enjoying the protection of the Duchess de Longueville, a cousin of King Louis XIV. After her death in 1679, persecution was renewed, and the community was forbidden to receive…

Sir Richard Church was a British soldier and Philhellene, commander of the Greek forces during the War of Greek Independence. The second son of a Quaker merchant, he ran away from school to join the army, becoming an ensign in the 13th (Somersetshire) Light Infantry and serving under Sir Ralph

Jan Hus: Hus and the Western Schism: …treatises was De ecclesia (The Church). He also wrote a large number of treatises in Czech and a collection of sermons entitled Postilla.

printing: Attempts to mechanize composition (mid-19th century): In 1822 William Church of Boston patented a typesetting machine consisting of a keyboard on which each key released a piece of type of the corresponding letter stored in channels in a magazine. The pieces of type thus obtained had to be assembled by hand and the…

Thomas Fuller: There he completed The Church-History of Britain (1655), notable for its number of excellent character sketches, and added to it The History of the University of Cambridge and The History of Waltham-Abbey in Essex (1655). In 1658 he was given the parish of Cranford, near London, and continued…

foundations of mathematics: Recursive definitions: The Church-Turing theorem of undecidability, combined with the related result of the Polish-born American mathematician Alfred Tarski (1902–83) on undecidability of truth, eliminated the possibility of a purely mechanical device replacing mathematicians.

Church’s thesis, a principle formulated by the 20th-century American logician Alonzo Church, stating that the recursive functions are the only functions that can be mechanically calculated. The theorem implies that the procedures of arithmetic cannot be used to decide the consistency of statements

ARCHIVED TOPIC: This topic was archived on May 7, 2025, and will no longer be updated. Churches in the United States were unofficially federally tax-exempt from the country’s founding until they received an official federal income tax exemption in 1894. Additionally, all 50 U.S. states and D.C.

Mitla: …Grupo de las Iglesias (Churches Group), Grupo del Arroyo (Arroyo Group), Grupo de los Adobes (Adobe Group), and Grupo del Sur (Southern Group)—of which only the first two had been fully excavated and restored by the early 1980s. Each group has several rectangular patios (some connected by long, winding…

Church of Christ, any of several conservative Protestant churches, found chiefly in the United States. They are strongest in parts of the Midwest and in the western and southern parts of the country. Each church is known locally as a Church of Christ and its members as Christians, and each church

Churches Together in Britain and Ireland, interdenominational Christian cooperative organization formed in 1942 by the Church of England and other British churches. It is concerned with ecumenical activity and with such social and cultural issues as environmental policy, immigration, and

Christianity: Property, poverty, and the poor: …of Churches (WCC) established the Commission for the Churches’ Participation in Development (CCPD). Initially involved in development programs and the provision of technical services, the CCPD focus shifted to the psychological and political character of the symbiosis of development and underdevelopment. This focus was endorsed at the 1975 WCC Assembly…

Churchill, northernmost seaport of Canada, in northeastern Manitoba. It lies on the west coast of Hudson Bay at the mouth of the Churchill River. It was named for John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough, governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company (1685–91). The company’s original wooden Fort Churchill

Churchill, county, west-central Nevada, U.S. An original Nevada county, Churchill was created in 1861. The county seat, Fallon, is about 60 miles (100 km) east of Reno. The Carson-Truckee Project (completed 1903) and Lahontan Dam (completed 1914), built on the Walker, Truckee, and Carson rivers,

Kentucky Derby: …first Saturday in May at Churchill Downs racetrack, Louisville, Kentucky. With the Preakness Stakes (run in mid-May) and the Belmont Stakes (early in June), it makes up American Thoroughbred racing’s coveted Triple Crown. The Derby field is limited to three-year-olds and, since 1975, to 20 horses; fillies carry 121 pounds…

Churchill Falls, part of a series of cataracts and rapids on the Churchill River, southwest of Michikamau Lake in west Labrador, Newfoundland, Canada. Lying 250 miles (400 km) from the river’s mouth, the falls drop 245 feet (75 m), forming part of the river’s 1,100-foot (335-metre) descent within a

North America: The Canadian Shield: …south of the intervening nonrigid Churchill province, which may be composite in origin. The structural grain of the cratons is truncated at their margins, suggesting that they originated by the fragmentation of larger continents that formed more than 2.6 billion years ago. Small remnant basins of essentially flat-lying Precambrian sedimentary…

Mackenzie River: History of Mackenzie River: …Portage) connecting the headwaters of Churchill River with the Clearwater River, itself one of the east-bank tributaries of the Athabasca River. In 1789 Alexander Mackenzie made his historic journey northward from the trading post of Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca, exploring, with a crew of 12 in three canoes, the…

Churchill River, largest river of Labrador, Newfoundland, Canada. It is formed from several river-lakes on the central plateau of western Labrador (a region of extensive iron-ore development) and meanders more than 200 miles (300 km) to Churchill Falls. There, the course is broken by a series of

Churchill tank, the most successful British tank used in World War II. In 1940, after the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force from Dunkirk on the French coast, the British government commissioned Vauxhall Motors, Ltd., to design a new tank to replace the Matilda II, which had limited

white paper: …governmental white paper is the Churchill White Paper (formally entitled Palestine: Correspondence with the Palestine Arab Delegation and the Zionist Organisation), issued by the British government in 1922 in response to anti-Jewish riots in Jaffa (now Yafo), Palestine. Named for the British colonial secretary Winston Churchill, the document attempted to…

Stagecoach: …whiskey salesman; Henry Gatewood (Berton Churchill), a corrupt banker attempting to abscond with stolen funds; Hatfield (John Carradine), a professional gambler and self-proclaimed southern gentleman who seeks to protect fellow passenger Lucy Mallory (Louise Platt), who is pregnant and hopes to reunite with her husband in Lordsburg, where he…

Caryl Churchill is a British playwright whose work frequently deals with feminist issues, abuses of power, and sexual politics. When Churchill was 10 years old, she emigrated with her family to Canada. She attended Lady Margaret Hall, a women’s college of the University of Oxford, and remained in

Charles Churchill was an English poet noted for his lampoons and polemical satires written in heroic couplets. Churchill was educated at Westminster School. Although he was delayed in taking orders by an early and imprudent marriage, he was ordained in 1756 and, in 1758, on his father’s death,

Clementine Churchill was an English aristocrat and philanthropist and the wife of famed English statesman Winston Churchill. Clementine Churchill was renowned for her support and advising of her husband during his political career, particularly during World War II. In his autobiography, Winston

Bambi: Production notes and credits:

Jennie Jerome Churchill was an American-born society figure, remembered chiefly as the wife of Lord Randolph Churchill and mother of Sir Winston Churchill, prime minister of Great Britain (1940–45, 1951–55). Jeanette Jerome was the daughter of a prosperous American financier and a socially

John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough was one of England’s greatest generals, who led British and allied armies to important victories over Louis XIV of France, notably at Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706), and Oudenaarde (1708). John Churchill was the son of Sir Winston Churchill, member of

Jennie Jerome Churchill was an American-born society figure, remembered chiefly as the wife of Lord Randolph Churchill and mother of Sir Winston Churchill, prime minister of Great Britain (1940–45, 1951–55). Jeanette Jerome was the daughter of a prosperous American financier and a socially

Lord Randolph Churchill was a British politician who was a precociously influential figure in the Conservative Party and the father of Winston Churchill. He became leader of the House of Commons and chancellor of the Exchequer in 1886, at the age of 37, and seemed certain to be prime minister in

Lord Randolph Churchill was a British politician who was a precociously influential figure in the Conservative Party and the father of Winston Churchill. He became leader of the House of Commons and chancellor of the Exchequer in 1886, at the age of 37, and seemed certain to be prime minister in

Randolph Churchill was an English author, journalist, and politician, the only son of British prime minister Winston Churchill. Churchill was a popular journalist in the 1930s and thrice failed to enter Parliament before becoming Conservative member for Preston (1940–45). During World War II he

Randolph Churchill was an English author, journalist, and politician, the only son of British prime minister Winston Churchill. Churchill was a popular journalist in the 1930s and thrice failed to enter Parliament before becoming Conservative member for Preston (1940–45). During World War II he

Sarah Jennings, Duchess of Marlborough was the wife of the renowned general John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Her close friendship with Queen Anne bolstered her husband’s career and served to aid the Whig cause. As a child, Sarah Jennings formed a friendship with the Princess Anne (the

John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough: Military career: …Churchill was the son of Sir Winston Churchill, member of Parliament, who possessed only a moderate property but was sufficiently influential at the court of Charles II to be able to provide for his sons there and in the armed forces. John, the eldest, advanced rapidly both at court and…

Winston Churchill was a British statesman, orator, and author who as prime minister (1940–45, 1951–55) rallied the British people during World War II and led his country from the brink of defeat to victory. After a sensational rise to prominence in national politics before World War I, Churchill

Winston Churchill was a British statesman, orator, and author who as prime minister (1940–45, 1951–55) rallied the British people during World War II and led his country from the brink of defeat to victory. After a sensational rise to prominence in national politics before World War I, Churchill

Winston Churchill was an American author of historical novels of wide popularity. Graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1894 and having private means, he soon devoted himself to writing. His first novel, The Celebrity, appeared in 1898. His next, Richard Carvel (1899), a novel of Revolutionary

rite of passage: Life-cycle ceremonies: … and the fading rite of churching of women, to a ceremony of thanksgiving for mothers soon after childbirth. These rites involve the parents as well as the child and in some societies include the couvade, which in its so-called classic form centres ritual attention at childbirth upon the father rather…

churchwarden, in the Church of England, one of the lay guardians of a parish church. The office dates from the 14th century, but the original duties of maintaining the edifice and goods of the church, with the financial obligations involved, were transferred to the parochial councils in 1921.

Thomas Churchyard was an English writer who won brief fame through his occasional verse, pamphlets on wartime experiences, pageants for Queen Elizabeth I, and historical and antiquarian works—all reflecting aspects of a crowded career. His works have never been completely printed and are of only

Nepal: Relief: The Churia Range, which is sparsely populated, rises in almost perpendicular escarpments to an altitude of more than 4,000 feet. Between the Churia Range to the south and the Mahābhārat Range to the north, there are broad basins from 2,000 to 3,000 feet high, about 10…

Bangladesh: Daily life and social customs: The traditional sherwani and churidar, calf-length tunic and close-fitting trousers, are still seen at weddings, where they are worn along with the turban. The sari is common among women, but girls and younger women, especially students, prefer the shalwar kamiz, a combination of calf-length shirt and baggy silk or…

tjurunga, in Australian Aboriginal religion, a mythical being and a ritual object, usually made of wood or stone, that is a representation or manifestation of such a being. An Aranda word, tjurunga traditionally referred to sacred or secret–sacred things set apart, or taboo; for example, certain