Auger effect: …be emitted is called the Auger yield for that shell. The Auger yield decreases with atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus), and at atomic number 30 (zinc) the probabilities of the emission of X rays from the innermost shell and of the emission of Auger electrons is…

Thunderball: …to Largo’s mistress, Domino (Claudine Auger), that Largo had her brother, a NATO pilot, killed, she agrees to help him locate the bombs. Although Bond does find the weapons, he cannot prevent Largo and his army of scuba divers from setting off to Miami Beach, the intended target of…

Pierre-François-Charles Augereau, duke de Castiglione was an army officer whose military ability won for France a series of brilliant victories in Italy under Napoleon’s command. The son of a poor Parisian servant, Augereau turned to a military career at the age of 17, served in several foreign

Augrabies Falls, series of separately channeled cataracts and rapids on the Orange River in arid Northern Cape province, South Africa. The falls, which form the central feature of Augrabies Falls National Park (established in 1966), occur where the Orange River leaves a plateau formation of

Augeas, in Greek legend, king of the Epeians in Elis, a son of the sun-god Helios. He possessed an immense wealth of herds, and King Eurystheus imposed upon the Greek hero Heracles the task of clearing out all of Augeas’s stables unaided in one day. Heracles did so by turning the Alpheus (or

Émile Augier was a popular dramatist who wrote comedies extolling the virtues of middle-class life and who, with Alexandre Dumas fils and Victorien Sardou, dominated the French stage during the Second Empire (1852–70). Augier was an unbending moralist, and all of his plays are to some extent

Émile Augier was a popular dramatist who wrote comedies extolling the virtues of middle-class life and who, with Alexandre Dumas fils and Victorien Sardou, dominated the French stage during the Second Empire (1852–70). Augier was an unbending moralist, and all of his plays are to some extent

augite, the most common pyroxene mineral (a silicate of calcium, magnesium, iron, titanium, and aluminum). It occurs chiefly as thick, tabular crystals in basalts, gabbros, andesites, and various other dark-coloured igneous rocks. It also is a common constituent of lunar basalts and meteorites rich

GPS: Augmentation: Although the travel time of a satellite signal to Earth is only a fraction of a second, much can happen to it in that interval. For example, electrically charged particles in the ionosphere and density variations in the troposphere may act to slow and…

heraldry: The nature and origins of heraldic terminology: …more easily discerned in the augmentations of honor, as they are called, when something has been added to a coat of arms by the (British) crown in recognition of services rendered. The arms of the British naval hero Admiral Horatio Nelson show new heraldic charges added to his ancestral arms…

Court of Augmentations, in Reformation England, the most important of a group of financial courts organized during the reign of Henry VIII; the others were the courts of General Surveyors, First Fruits and Tenths, and Wards and Liveries. They were instituted chiefly so that the crown might gain

augmentative and alternative communication (AAC), form of communication used in place of or in addition to speech. Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) includes the use of communication aids, such as alphabet boards and electronic communication devices that speak, as well as unaided

augmented reality, in computer programming, a process of combining or “augmenting” video or photographic displays by overlaying the images with useful computer-generated data. The earliest applications of augmented reality were almost certainly the “heads-up-displays” (HUDs) used in military

Initial Teaching Alphabet, alphabet of 44 characters designed by Sir James Pitman to help children learn to read English more effectively. The Initial Teaching Alphabet is based on the phonemic (sound) system of English and uses the Roman alphabet, augmented by 14 additional characters, to

harmony: Use of dissonance for harmonic colour: …a musical passage was the augmented sixth chord. This is an altered chord, or one built by taking a chord normally occurring in its key and chromatically altering it. In this case, two of its notes are changed by a half step. Specifically, an augmented sixth chord is built on…

triad: …the triad is called an augmented triad; if the third is minor and the fifth is diminished, the triad is a diminished triad. Augmented and diminished triads are dissonant.

STOL airplane: …aerodynamic devices, such as the augmentor wing, which was introduced during the early 1960s. It consists of full span slats at the leading edge of the wing and full span double-slotted flaps at the trailing edge. Manipulation of these devices and an air duct system allows use of air turbulence…

Hymenoptera: Social forms: In Augochloropsis sparsalis there is a further development in that females of one nest stay together for one summer, and a division of labor occurs. Some of the young females return, still unmated, from the nuptial flight. These individuals then take charge of gathering pollen and…

Augrabies Falls, series of separately channeled cataracts and rapids on the Orange River in arid Northern Cape province, South Africa. The falls, which form the central feature of Augrabies Falls National Park (established in 1966), occur where the Orange River leaves a plateau formation of

Augsburg, city, Bavaria Land (state), southern Germany. It lies at the junction of the Wertach and Lech rivers and extends over the plateau country between the two rivers. In 1974 Augsburg annexed the neighbouring cities of Göggingen and Haunstetten. Traces of an Early Bronze Age settlement have

biblical literature: German versions: A complete New Testament, the Augsburg Bible, can be dated to 1350, and another from Bohemia, Codex Teplensis (c. 1400), has also survived.

Minneapolis: The contemporary city: …institutions of higher education include Augsburg University (Lutheran; 1869), Dunwoody College of Technology (1914), Minneapolis College of Art and Design (1886), a campus of Metro State University (1971), and North Central University (Pentecostal; 1930). Of historical and cultural interest are the Guthrie Theater, the Minnesota Opera’s Luminary Arts Center and…

Augsburg Confession, the 28 articles that constitute the basic confession of the Lutheran churches. The Augsburg Confession was presented June 25, 1530, in German and Latin at the Diet of Augsburg to the emperor Charles V by seven Lutheran princes and two imperial free cities. The principal author

Augsburg Interim, temporary doctrinal agreement between German Catholics and Protestants, proclaimed in May 1548 at the Diet of Augsburg (1547–48), which became imperial law on June 30, 1548. It was prepared and accepted at the insistence of the Holy Roman emperor Charles V, who hoped to establish

Minneapolis: The contemporary city: …institutions of higher education include Augsburg University (Lutheran; 1869), Dunwoody College of Technology (1914), Minneapolis College of Art and Design (1886), a campus of Metro State University (1971), and North Central University (Pentecostal; 1930). Of historical and cultural interest are the Guthrie Theater, the Minnesota Opera’s Luminary Arts Center and…

Germany: Lutheran church organization and confessionalization: …presented for discussion at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, which was attended by the emperor. The Augsburg Confession, which became a fundamental statement of Lutheran belief, assumed that reconciliation with the Catholics was still possible. This view was shared by Charles, who was pushing the pope toward the summoning…

League of Augsburg, Coalition formed in 1686 by Emperor Leopold I, the kings of Sweden and Spain, and the electors of Bavaria, Saxony, and the Palatinate. The league was formed to oppose the expansionist plans of Louis XIV of France prior to the War of the Grand Alliance. It proved ineffective

Peace of Augsburg, first permanent legal basis for the coexistence of Lutheranism and Catholicism in Germany, promulgated on September 25, 1555, by the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire assembled earlier that year at Augsburg. The Peace allowed the state princes to select either Lutheranism or

War of the Grand Alliance, (1689–97), the third major war of Louis XIV of France, in which his expansionist plans were blocked by an alliance led by England, the United Provinces of the Netherlands, and the Austrian Habsburgs. The deeper issue underlying the war was the balance of power between the

Der Spiegel: The editor, Rudolf Augstein, was arrested, along with four others on the magazine’s staff, and charged with the publication of secret information. He was detained for 104 days. The magazine’s hard-hitting news approach won it one of Europe’s biggest circulations and an abundance of advertisers. It is…

Der Spiegel: The editor, Rudolf Augstein, was arrested, along with four others on the magazine’s staff, and charged with the publication of secret information. He was detained for 104 days. The magazine’s hard-hitting news approach won it one of Europe’s biggest circulations and an abundance of advertisers. It is…

augur, in ancient Rome, one of the members of a religious college whose duty it was to observe and interpret the signs (auspices) of approval or disapproval sent by the gods in reference to any proposed undertaking. The augures were originally called auspices, but, while auspex fell into disuse and

Quintus Mucius Scaevola was a prominent Roman jurist. He was the cousin of Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex, who founded the scientific study of Roman law. Instructed in law by his father and in philosophy by the stoic Panaetius of Rhodes, Scaevola became governor of the province of Asia about 120.

augur, in ancient Rome, one of the members of a religious college whose duty it was to observe and interpret the signs (auspices) of approval or disapproval sent by the gods in reference to any proposed undertaking. The augures were originally called auspices, but, while auspex fell into disuse and

William Blake: Visions of eternity: …he wrote in his “Auguries of Innocence,” his purpose was

Salus: The augurium salutis, not involving a personification and possibly antedating the deification of Salus, was an annual ascertainment of the acceptability to the gods of prayers for the public salus. Because it was required to be performed on a day of peace, the constant warfare of…

Western painting: Etruscan: …depictions are those on the Tomb of the Augurs at Tarquinii, with its scenes of wrestlers, dancers, musicians, and a banquet. These paintings date from the late 6th century bce and, although the style of painting changed somewhat in later periods, the types of scene represented remained standard. The Archaic…

augury, prophetic divining of the future by observation of natural phenomena—particularly the behaviour of birds and animals and the examination of their entrails and other parts, but also by scrutiny of man-made objects and situations. The term derives from the official Roman augurs, whose

Anthony Hopkins: Directorial efforts: …wrote and directed the film August (1996) and the surreal Slipstream (2007). The former was adapted from Anton Chekhov’s play Uncle Vanya, and the latter followed an aging screenwriter as he encountered his characters in real life. Hopkins played the lead in both films.

August, eighth month of the Gregorian calendar. It was named for the first Roman emperor, Augustus Caesar, in 8 bce. Its original name was Sextilus, Latin for “sixth month,” indicating its position in the early Roman

August 1914, historical novel by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, published as Avgust chetyrnadtsatogo in Paris in 1971. An enlarged version, nearly double in size, was published in 1983. The novel treats Germany’s crushing victory over Russia in their initial military engagement of World War I, the Battle

Barbara Tuchman: In 1962 Tuchman’s The Guns of August (also published as August 1914) was published to widespread critical and popular acclaim. This work is a detailed account of the first month of World War I, and it vividly describes the series of military errors and miscalculations that led to…

Denis Villeneuve: …32 août sur terre (1998; August 32nd on Earth), a dreamlike and atmospheric film about a woman thrown into an existential crisis after surviving a car accident. He then wrote and directed Maelström (2000), another surreal outing, about a woman (Marie-Josée Croze) whose life spins out of control after she…

John Stuart Mill: The later years of John Stuart Mill: …William Hamilton’s Philosophy and his Auguste Comte and Positivism, but in both writings his motives were largely political. It was because he regarded the writings and sayings of Sir William Hamilton as the great fortress of intuitional philosophy in Great Britain that Mill undertook to counter his pretensions. In dealing…

1991 Soviet coup attempt, (August 19–21, 1991), attempt by Communist hard-liners to seize control of the Soviet Union by holding Pres. Mikhail Gorbachev captive. The plotters had little support among the broader political and military establishment, however, and the coup collapsed in a matter of

Augustus II was the king of Poland and elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus I). Though he regained Poland’s former provinces of Podolia and Ukraine, his reign marked the beginning of Poland’s decline as a European power. The second son of Elector John George III of Saxony, Augustus succeeded

Nigel Dennis: …journalism sharpened the satire of August for the People (1961), a much-praised play about the power of the press. His nonfiction included a critical biography of Jonathan Swift.

Augustus II was the king of Poland and elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus I). Though he regained Poland’s former provinces of Podolia and Ukraine, his reign marked the beginning of Poland’s decline as a European power. The second son of Elector John George III of Saxony, Augustus succeeded

Augustus III was the king of Poland and elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus II), whose reign witnessed one of the greatest periods of disorder within Poland. More interested in ease and pleasure than in affairs of state, this notable patron of the arts left the administration of Saxony and

Augustus II was the king of Poland and elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus I). Though he regained Poland’s former provinces of Podolia and Ukraine, his reign marked the beginning of Poland’s decline as a European power. The second son of Elector John George III of Saxony, Augustus succeeded

Augustus III was the king of Poland and elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus II), whose reign witnessed one of the greatest periods of disorder within Poland. More interested in ease and pleasure than in affairs of state, this notable patron of the arts left the administration of Saxony and

Edna O’Brien: Other novels: …The Country Girls Trilogy are August Is a Wicked Month (1965), Casualties of Peace (1966), Night (1972), Johnny I Hardly Knew You (1977; U.S. title I Hardly Knew You), The High Road (1988), House of Splendid Isolation (1994), Down by the River (1996),

Quit India Movement, mass protest movement during 1942–43 against the colonial British raj’s political and military control of India. The movement, which took place against the backdrop of World War II, was initially planned by Mahatma Gandhi and his followers in the Indian National Congress

Augustus II was the king of Poland and elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus I). Though he regained Poland’s former provinces of Podolia and Ukraine, his reign marked the beginning of Poland’s decline as a European power. The second son of Elector John George III of Saxony, Augustus succeeded

Quit India Movement, mass protest movement during 1942–43 against the colonial British raj’s political and military control of India. The movement, which took place against the backdrop of World War II, was initially planned by Mahatma Gandhi and his followers in the Indian National Congress

Jacques Piccard: His first mesoscaphe, the Auguste Piccard, capable of carrying 40 passengers, transported some 33,000 tourists through the depths of Lake Geneva during the 1964 Swiss National Exhibition in Lausanne. In 1969 he drifted some 3,000 km (1,800 miles) along the east coast of North America in the mesoscaphe Ben…

Truong Chinh: …these events in his book The August Revolution. The PCI was disbanded but reemerged as the Alliance for the Dissemination of Marxism, with Truong Chinh as its chairman and leading theoretician. In 1951 the Vietnam Workers’ Party (Dang Lao-Dong Viet-Nam) was born, with Truong Chinh as secretary-general.

Thyssen AG, former German corporation that, prior to its 1999 merger with Krupp AG, was the largest steel producer in Europe. It operated ironworks, steelmaking plants, and rolling mills; made building materials, automotive parts, and machinery; and engaged in trading and financial services. Its

August, Count Neidhardt von Gneisenau was a Prussian field marshal and reformer, one of the key figures in rebuilding and reorganizing the Prussian army shattered by Napoleon in 1806 and the architect of its victory during the wars of liberation (1813–15). Of impoverished noble parentage, Gneisenau

Tracy Letts: His subsequent play, August: Osage County, was a black comedy depicting a wildly dysfunctional Oklahoma family coping with the death of its patriarch. Performed by Steppenwolf as well as on Broadway (with Letts’s own father in the role of the patriarch) in 2007, August: Osage County won a…

Chris Cooper: …The Company You Keep (2012), August: Osage County (2013), and Demolition (2015), and he portrayed J.D. Salinger in Coming Through the Rye (2015).

Augusta, town, Sicily, Italy, north of the city of Syracuse; it lies on a long sandy island off the southeast coast between the Golfo (gulf) di Augusta and the Ionian Sea and is connected by two bridges with the mainland. The town was founded near the site of the ancient Dorian town of Megara

Augusta was the queen consort of Prussia from 1861 and German empress from 1871, the wife of William I. The younger daughter of Charles Frederick, grand duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, she was married to the future king and emperor on June 11, 1829. She was jealously devoted to her children,

Augusta, city, river port, and seat (1777) of Richmond county, eastern Georgia, U.S. It lies on the Savannah River (there bridged to North Augusta, South Carolina), on the fall line where the Piedmont Plateau meets the Coastal Plain. The area was explored in 1540 by the Spanish conquistador

Augusta, capital (1831) of Maine, U.S., seat (1799) of Kennebec county, at the head of navigation on the Kennebec River, 57 miles (92 km) northeast of Portland. The city’s establishment and early prosperity, which began with the arrival of traders from the Plymouth colony of Massachusetts in 1628,

Washington and Lee University, private, coeducational institution of higher learning in Lexington, Virginia, U.S. The university, one of the oldest in the United States, comprises the College, the School of Law, and the Williams School of Commerce, Economics, and Politics. It offers undergraduate

Istanbul: …Severus rebuilt it, naming it Augusta Antonina in honour of his son. In 330 ce, when Constantine the Great dedicated the city as his capital, he called it New Rome. The coinage, nevertheless, continued to be stamped Byzantium until he ordered the substitution of Constantinopolis. At the end of the…

Lord Byron: Celebrity and marriage: Mad, bad, and dangerous to know: …relations with his half sister Augusta, now married to Colonel George Leigh. He then carried on a flirtation with Lady Frances Webster as a diversion from this dangerous liaison. The agitations of these two love affairs and the sense of mingled guilt and exultation they aroused in Byron are reflected…

Mérida, town, north-central Badajoz provincia (province), in the comunidad autónoma (autonomous community) of Extremadura, western Spain. It is located on the north bank of the Guadiana River, about 35 miles (55 km) east of Badajoz, the provincial capital. The town was founded by the Romans in 25

Augusta: Augusta National Golf Club in the city hosts the annual Masters Tournament, one of professional golf’s most prestigious events. Fort Gordon, site of the U.S. Army Signal Center and several Signal Corps schools, is located southwest of downtown; and the Savannah River Site, a federal…

Augusta: Augusta State University, originally part of the Academy of Richmond County (1783), was chartered as a college in 1925; in 2013 it merged with Georgia Health Sciences University to become Georgia Regents University, which includes the Medical College of Georgia (founded as the Medical Academy…

Turin, city, capital of Torino provincia and of Piemonte (Piedmont) regione, northwestern Italy. It is located on the Po River near its junction with the Sangone, Dora Riparia, and Stura di Lanzo rivers. The original settlement of Taurisia, founded by the Taurini, was partly destroyed by the

Stara Zagora, town, central Bulgaria. It lies in the southern foothills of the Sredna Mountains and on the fringe of the fertile Stara Zagora plain. The town has varied industries producing cotton, textiles, chemicals, fertilizers, agricultural implements, machine tools, and cigarettes as well as

Trier, city, Rhineland-Palatinate Land (state), southwestern Germany. It lies on the right bank of the Moselle (Mosel) River, surrounded by the foothills of the Eifel, Hunsrück, and Mosel mountains, just east of the border with Luxembourg. A shrine of the Treveri, a Germanic tribe, existed at the

Wilhelm II: Youth and early influences: In 1881 Wilhelm married Princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg. As empress, she focused her attention on social causes, preferring to avoid direct involvement in politics. During their marriage, Augusta gave birth to six sons and a daughter.

Augsburg, city, Bavaria Land (state), southern Germany. It lies at the junction of the Wertach and Lech rivers and extends over the plateau country between the two rivers. In 1974 Augsburg annexed the neighbouring cities of Göggingen and Haunstetten. Traces of an Early Bronze Age settlement have

Cherokee: Early colonial period: …hectares) in Georgia through the Treaty of Augusta.

coin: Italy and Sicily: His gold augustale (patterned after the aureus) and their halves, struck about 1231 at Brindisi and Messina, were accompanied by billon deniers. Sicily soon passed to Charles I of Anjou (1266–85), and its Angevin coinage, like that of Naples, assumed the French medieval style, succeeded in turn…

Sir Richard Steele: Early life and works.: …he published in 1701 a moralistic tract, “The Christian Hero,” of which 10 editions were sold in his lifetime. This tract led to Steele’s being accused of hypocrisy and mocked for the contrast between his austere precepts and his genially convivial practice. For many of his contemporaries, however, its polite…

Augustan Age, one of the most illustrious periods in Latin literary history, from approximately 43 bc to ad 18; together with the preceding Ciceronian period (q.v.), it forms the Golden Age (q.v.) of Latin literature. Marked by civil peace and prosperity, the age reached its highest literary

Western sculpture: Augustan Age: The hallmark of portraits of Augustus is a naturalistic classicism. The rendering of his features and the forking of his hair above the brow is individual. But the emperor is consistently idealized and never shown as elderly or aging. A marble statue from…

Augustan History, a collection of biographies of the Roman emperors (Augusti) from Hadrian to Numerian (117–284), an important source for the history of the Roman Empire. The work is incomplete in its surviving form; there are no lives for 244–259. It may originally have begun with one of Hadrian’s

Ara Pacis, shrine consisting of a marble altar in a walled enclosure erected in Rome’s Campus Martius (Field of Mars) in honour of the emperor Augustus and dedicated on Jan. 30, 9 bce. The dedication was recorded in Ovid’s Fasti as well as by Augustus himself in his “Res Gestae Divi Augusti”

Augustana College, private, coeducational liberal arts college located along the Mississippi River in Rock Island, northwestern Illinois, U.S. The college is affiliated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Lutheran immigrants from Sweden, most of them graduates of Uppsala and Lund

Sioux Falls: Educational facilities include Augustana College (1860), the University of Sioux Falls (1883), North American Baptist Seminary, Kilian Community College (1977), Southeast Technical Institute (1968), and a centre (1992) combining educational programs from Dakota State University, South Dakota State University, and the University of South Dakota. The state penitentiary…

Augustana College, private, coeducational liberal arts college located along the Mississippi River in Rock Island, northwestern Illinois, U.S. The college is affiliated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Lutheran immigrants from Sweden, most of them graduates of Uppsala and Lund

Augustana Evangelical Lutheran Church, church organized in the United States by Norwegian and Swedish immigrants in 1860 in Jefferson Prairie, Wisconsin, as the Scandinavian Augustana Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Tufve Nilsson Hasselquist, an ordained minister in the Church of Sweden, was the first

clown: …appeared under the name of Auguste, who had a big nose, baggy clothes, large shoes, and untidy manners. He worked with a whiteface clown and always spoiled the latter’s trick by appearing at an inappropriate time to foul things up.

metalwork: 18th century: In France, Robert Auguste created pieces of great refinement in the Neoclassical style, which was copied in Turin and in Rome, for example, by L. Valadier. A notable workshop was founded in Madrid in 1778 by D. Antonio Martínez, who favored severely classical designs. In both the…

St. Augustine of Canterbury ; feast day in England and Wales May 26; General Roman Calendar May 27; traditional calendar May 28 ) was the first archbishop of Canterbury and the apostle to England, who founded the Christian church in southern England. (What happens when the archbishop of Canterbury

St. Augustine ; feast day August 28) was the bishop of Hippo from 396 to 430, one of the Latin Fathers of the Church, and perhaps the most significant Christian thinker after St. Paul. Augustine’s adaptation of classical thought to Christian teaching created a theological system of great power and

Alaskan mountains: Physiography of the southern ranges: …do Mounts Redoubt (1968) and Augustine (1976).

St. Augustine ; feast day August 28) was the bishop of Hippo from 396 to 430, one of the Latin Fathers of the Church, and perhaps the most significant Christian thinker after St. Paul. Augustine’s adaptation of classical thought to Christian teaching created a theological system of great power and

Augustinian, member of any of the Roman Catholic religious orders and congregations of men and women whose constitutions are based on the Rule of St. Augustine. More specifically, the name is used to designate members of two main branches of Augustinians—namely, the Augustinian Canons and the

Augustinian: …main branches of Augustinians—namely, the Augustinian Canons and the Augustinian Hermits, with their female offshoots. The Rule comprises instructions on the religious life written by St. Augustine, the great Western theologian, and widely disseminated after his death in 430 ce.

Villanova University, private, coeducational institution of higher learning in Villanova, Pennsylvania, U.S. It is affiliated with the Augustinian order of the Roman Catholic church. It offers degree programs at the associate, bachelor’s, master’s, doctoral, and professional levels. Degrees are

Augustinian: …the Augustinian Canons and the Augustinian Hermits, with their female offshoots. The Rule comprises instructions on the religious life written by St. Augustine, the great Western theologian, and widely disseminated after his death in 430 ce.

Augustinian: Augustinian Recollects: …the Augustinian Hermits is the Augustinian Recollects (O.A.R.), formed in the 16th century by friars who desired a rule of stricter observance and a return to the eremitic ideals of solitude and contemplation. In 1588 the monastery at Talavera de la Reina in Spain was designated for the Recollects, and…

Emmanuel d’ Alzon: …(1845) the congregation of the Augustinians of the Assumption, dedicated to education and to missionary work; it received papal approval in 1864. To help in this work he also founded a congregation of women, the Oblates of the Assumption. He was sent in 1863 to establish a mission in Constantinople…

Cornelius Otto Jansen: Return to Leuven: the Augustinus: …began his great work, the Augustinus. For him, the divine grace that alone can offer salvation is not at all due to an individual’s good actions. It is, he claimed, a gratuitous gift by means of which Christ leads the elect to eternal life, but the multitude, “the mass of…