On June 13, 2025, Israel conducted a major operation against Iran. The anticipated attack, which targeted nuclear facilities, military sites, and regime infrastructure, followed nearly two years of war between Israel and Iran-backed militant groups that also saw two direct confrontations between

12-hour clock, time convention that splits a 24-hour day into two equal 12-hour periods. The first is referred to as am, which stands for ante meridiem, “before midday” in Latin, while the second is referred to using pm, meaning post meridiem, or “after midday.” This nomenclature is based on the

carboxylic acid: Unsaturated aliphatic acids: Ricinoleic acid, an unsaturated hydroxy acid (i.e., one containing an ―OH group), occurs in castor oil. When this acid is pyrolyzed (heated in the absence of air), it breaks down to give undecylenic acid and n-heptaldehyde.

carboxylic acid: Unsaturated aliphatic acids: Ricinoleic acid, an unsaturated hydroxy acid (i.e., one containing an ―OH group), occurs in castor oil. When this acid is pyrolyzed (heated in the absence of air), it breaks down to give undecylenic acid and n-heptaldehyde.

addiction recovery: Treatments and interventions: …Narcotics Anonymous, which use a 12-step approach to recovery. Sober living homes, which offer substance-free living environments, may serve as a step between treatment and a return to living independently. Individuals can also seek out recovery community centers that offer nonclinical support services, such as advocacy training and social activities.…

12-tone music, large body of music, written roughly since World War I, that uses the so-called 12-tone method or technique of composition. The Austrian-born composer Arnold Schoenberg is credited with the invention of this technique, although other composers (e.g., the American composer Charles

12-tone music, large body of music, written roughly since World War I, that uses the so-called 12-tone method or technique of composition. The Austrian-born composer Arnold Schoenberg is credited with the invention of this technique, although other composers (e.g., the American composer Charles

12-tone music, large body of music, written roughly since World War I, that uses the so-called 12-tone method or technique of composition. The Austrian-born composer Arnold Schoenberg is credited with the invention of this technique, although other composers (e.g., the American composer Charles

bird-of-paradise: The 12-wired bird-of-paradise (Seleucidis melanoleuca, sometimes S. ignotus) is a short-tailed, 33-cm bird with flank plumes elaborated as forward-curving wires.

Netherlands: The Twelve Years’ Truce: The Twelve Years’ Truce, which began in 1609, arose out of political controversies that were to dominate the republic for the next two centuries. The collaboration between the house of Orange and the leaders of the province of Holland, which had thwarted…

120 Days of Sodom, a sexually explicit account of several months of debauchery, written in 1785 in French as Cent vingt journées de Sodome, ou l’école du libertinage by the Marquis de Sade while he was imprisoned in the Bastille. It was not published until 1904. The book tells the infamous tale of

120 Days of Sodom, a sexually explicit account of several months of debauchery, written in 1785 in French as Cent vingt journées de Sodome, ou l’école du libertinage by the Marquis de Sade while he was imprisoned in the Bastille. It was not published until 1904. The book tells the infamous tale of

Crusades: The Crusade of Frederick II: The treaty of 1229 is unique in the history of the Crusades. By diplomacy alone and without major military confrontation, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and a corridor running to the sea were ceded to the kingdom of Jerusalem. Exception was made for the Temple area, the Dome of…

123Movies, defunct movie and television show streaming website that enabled users to watch and download media for free in the 2010s. The site operated under numerous domain names during its existence, including 123movies.to, 0123movies.net, and 123movies.la, and went by several names, including

Apollo Theater, theatre established in 1913 at 253 West 125th Street in the Harlem district of New York City. It has been a significant venue for African American popular music. The Apollo was the central theatre on Harlem’s main commercial street, and its position reflects its central role in

A.R. Rahman: Later work: …2010 Rahman scored the film 127 Hours, for which he received nominations for a BAFTA (original music), a Golden Globe (best original score for a motion picture), and two Oscars (best original score and best original song). He also scored The Hundred-Foot Journey (2014) and Million Dollar Arm (2014). He…

human nervous system: Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII or 12): The hypoglossal nerve innervates certain muscles that control movement of the tongue. From the hypoglossal nucleus in the medulla oblongata, general somatic efferent fibers exit the cranial cavity through the hypoglossal canal and enter the neck in close proximity…

Vikrant Massey: 12th Fail and beyond: …extraordinary success of the film 12th Fail (2023), based on the true story of police officer Manoj Kumar Sharma, who performed poorly in school but eventually cleared a government examination that would enable him to serve on the police force. Massey’s performance in the lead role resonated with critics as…

king cake, a sweet, ring-shaped pastry that is served from Epiphany through Shrove Tuesday in the Christian calendar. It is particularly associated with Mardi Gras, the festive pre-Lenten season in the United States, and it is usually baked with a symbolic trinket hidden inside, often to represent

Black Sabbath: Breakup and reunions: 2013 the Rick Rubin-produced 13—the first Black Sabbath studio recording in 25 years on which Osbourne, Butler, and Iommi played together—topped charts around the world. The band won its second Grammy for the single “God Is Dead?” Black Sabbath embarked upon a farewell tour in 2016, with a final…

number symbolism: 13: Triskaidekaphobes believe 13 to be unlucky, especially when the 13th day of the month is a Friday, a fear that was reinforced by the explosion that almost wrecked the Apollo 13 lunar spacecraft in 1970. Skeptics note that it returned to Earth safely, unlike…

Britpop: …via the new popism of 13 (1999).

Some of the most innovative artists of the Western world were only around for a decade or two during which they managed to make waves and leave an indelible imprint on the history of art. Spanning 600 years, here is a list of 13 of them. Who knows what they may have accomplished had they had a

combinatorics: Packing and covering: …might be possible to have 13 equal non-overlapping spheres touch another of the same size. This dilemma between 12 and 13, one of the first nontrivial problems of combinatorial geometry, was the object of discussion between Isaac Newton and David Gregory in 1694. Newton believed 12 to be the correct…

The history of Berlin is a long one, filled with triumphs and tragedies. These 13 buildings span centuries and capture, in microcosm, the city’s unique progression through time and arrival in the present. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You

Tokyo was once known as Edo, which began as a fishing village many centuries ago. Edo became Tokyo (”Eastern Capital”) in the 19th century, when it became Japan’s capital. This list highlights just a few of the many significant buildings in Tokyo. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these

In many ways football (soccer) is a game of luck just as it is a game of skill, technical mastery, and team play. A single injury, a missed penalty, a controversial red card, or a moment of sheer brilliance from the opposing team can determine the performance of a player, no matter how talented.

William Castle: King of the Gimmick: For 13 Ghosts (1960), Castle offered “Illusion-O,” a pair of glasses with tinted plastic lenses that made the ghosts visible on-screen when worn. Homicidal (1961) was a knockoff of Psycho (1960), with the added fillip of a “Fright Break,” which offered audiences a refund if they…

The Indigenous peoples of what are now the United States and Canada have a rich history of oral tradition and folk literature that dates back thousands of years. In the 20th and 21st centuries many Native American and First Nations writers emerged to become among the most exciting voices in

When you visit New York City, you’re following the footsteps of some of the world’s greatest architects. Make sure you don’t miss these prime examples of their work that, together, make the great city what it is today. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001

Shrewd observers and lavish prose stylists, the writers on this list deserve your readership. Their variously humane and hilarious portraits of queerness and same-sex love and lust—and the everyday lives of those who experience them—are illuminating, whether you’re gay, straight, or somewhere in

How do people breathe in and out? What’s the body’s biggest organ? What causes a bruise? This list answers these questions and others about how the human body works. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book for Kids (and Parents)

Henry Hathaway: Film noirs: With 13 Rue Madeleine (1947), Hathaway grafted noir visuals onto an espionage thriller with fine results; James Cagney was especially effective as a resilient OSS agent. Kiss of Death (1947) is one of Hathaway’s most enduring films. The tale of a criminal (Victor Mature) willing to…

ground squirrel: Nontropical ground squirrels: The body temperature of the 13-lined ground squirrel (S. tridecemlineatus) of central North America drops from 37 °C (98.6 °F) to 1 to 3 degrees above burrow temperature. During this time the heart rate decreases from 200 to 350 beats per minute in the active animal to about 5, and…

homopteran: Periodical cicada: …of both the 17- and 13-year cicadas have been studied. The largest and most widespread brood of the 17-year form occurs in abundance over much of the northeastern quarter of the United States. “Harvest flies,” common black and green species, appear cyclically every two to five years, emerging in summer…

comet: The modern era: …new comet, which was designated 133P/Elst-Pizarro. But when the orbit of the comet was determined, it was found to lie in the outer asteroid belt with a semimajor axis of 3.16 AU, an eccentricity of 0.162, and an inclination of only 1.39°. A search of older records showed that 133P…

Common: …was featured in DuVernay’s documentary 13th (2016).

psychedelic rock: ” Meanwhile, the 13th Floor Elevators from Austin, Texas, epitomized the darker, more psychotic frenzy of acid rock—characterized by overdriven guitars, amplified feedback, and droning guitar motifs influenced by Eastern music. Led by the wayward talent of Roky Erickson, a gifted musician who was later hospitalized for mental…

Otto Preminger: Challenges to the Production Code of Otto Preminger: The 13th Letter (1951) served up more suspense, with several residents (Charles Boyer, Michael Rennie, and Darnell, among others) in a small Canadian town receiving poison-pen letters.

Calle 13, Puerto Rican popular music duo known for intelligent, poetic, and sharply pointed social and political commentary—all delivered through a distinctive blend of hip-hop with a broad range of Latin American music styles. René Pérez Joglar (“Residente”; b. February 23, 1978, San Juan, Puerto

Antonio Banderas: Hollywood success: Philadelphia and Interview with the Vampire: … (1998), which costarred Catherine Zeta-Jones, The 13th Warrior (1999), and Play It to the Bone (1999). He made his directorial debut with the comedy Crazy in Alabama (1999), which starred his second wife, actress Melanie Griffith (the two divorced in 2015). In 2001 Banderas reteamed with Rodriguez on Spy Kids,…

number symbolism: 14: The number 14 is an even number with attributes similar to those of 7. A period of 14 days is half of the Moon’s 28-day cycle, so it takes 14 days (one fortnight, short for fourteen-night) for the Moon to wax from new to…

“I am a Scotsman,” Sir Walter Scott once wrote; “therefore I had to fight my way into the world.” This list explains how these 14 buildings fought their way onto Scottish soil. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die,

France: The Jacobin dictatorship: …its revolutionary government in the Law of 14 Frimaire, year II (December 4, 1793). To organize the Revolution, to promote confidence and compliance, efficiency and control, this law centralized authority in a parliamentary dictatorship, with the Committee of Public Safety at the helm. The committee already controlled military policy and…

Water: the lifeblood of our planet and home to some of the most unique aquatic creatures on this planet. This list includes many fascinating facts about some of the animals that populate the world’s bodies of water. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second

The people of the United States live under a variety of governments—the federal government, state governments, and local governments—all with their own powers and responsibilities. This list answers 14 questions about how these governments work. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first

Nationalmuseum in Sweden’s capital city, Stockholm, has roots in the 18th century, but the museum as it is known today originated in the 1840s, when planning and construction of its current building began. Its collections of hundreds of thousands of artworks range from paintings and sculpture to

Why are there wars? Who is God? These are but two of the “tough questions” about the complicated and the unknown that many people ask. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book for Kids (and Parents) by Gina Misiroglu (2010). list,

Becoming a saint in the Roman Catholic Church requires certain qualifications. Above all, a person must be Catholic, must have lived a holy life, and must be dead for five years before the path to sainthood can begin. There are, however, no age restrictions. Some of the most venerated Catholic

Togo: Faure Gnassingbé’s presidency: …to be known as the Coalition of 14 (C14). Primary among the protestors’ demands were the reinstatement of presidential term limits (limiting the president to two terms), for the limits to be retroactive, and the introduction of a two-round presidential election system. Some also called for Gnassingbé to step down.…

balkline billiards: …shots, respectively, within a balk—and 14.1 and 14.2, with 14-in lines and the same restrictions on shots. Other games are played occasionally, such as 28.2 and 71.2, with one line down the centre of the table parallel to the long cushions and with lines parallel to each of the short…

balkline billiards: 1 and 14.2, with 14-in lines and the same restrictions on shots. Other games are played occasionally, such as 28.2 and 71.2, with one line down the centre of the table parallel to the long cushions and with lines parallel to each of the short cushions, thus…

Katy Perry: Later music projects, American Idol, and Blue Origin spaceflight: Perry later released 143(2024), which was notable for its negative reviews.

Claire L. Chennault: …Force (later reorganized as the 14th Air Force) and Chennault was recalled to active duty in 1942. The squadron had great success against Japanese forces, and in 1943 Chennault was promoted to major general. He had frequent clashes with General Joseph Stilwell and other superior officers, however, and in 1945…

James Patterson: Heaven (2008), 11th Hour (2012), 14th Deadly Sin (2015), 16th Seduction (2017), and The 20th Victim (2020), were written with coauthors. Patterson’s other thriller series included one involving Michael Bennett, a detective. The first installment, Step on a Crack, was published in 2007, and later books included Burn (2004) and…

number symbolism: 15: As the product of two sacred numbers (3 × 5), 15 naturally has religious significance. In ancient Nineveh the goddess Ishtar was served by 15 priests, and the city had 15 gates. The 3 × 3 magic square has 15 as its magic constant,…

In the world of Japanese comics and graphic novels, manga is more than entertainment—it is central to Japan’s publishing industry and has a growing global readership. Manga are serialized in weekly magazines, collected in paperback volumes, and adapted across media platforms. Manga stories are

Nelson Mandela (1918–2013) was a South African black nationalist who spent 27 years in prison for fighting against the country’s discriminatory apartheid system of racial segregation. His negotiations in the early 1990s with South African Pres. F.W. de Klerk helped bring an end to apartheid and

Humans are not the only members of the animal kingdom that can sing. Although some whales, cicadas, and tree frogs can sing (or seem to sing) too, this ability also belongs to nearly half of all the world’s birds! All members of the suborder Passeri (or oscines) of the order Passeriformes, which

The Victoria and Albert Museum in London has its origins in the Great Exhibition of 1851. The works of decorative arts displayed there moved to the Museum of Manufacturers and then to the South Kensington Museum, which, in 1899, was renamed the Victoria and Albert Museum. Today the V&A’s collection

Units of measurement help us through our daily lives by standardizing how we discuss things such as someone’s height, the size of our shoes, the weight of that handful of fruit in the supermarket, and the temperature outside. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the

15-minute city, an urban planning concept in which all amenities—health care, grocery stores, schools, parks, and the like—can be reached within a 15-minute walk or bike ride. The conversion of existing neighborhoods and cities into 15-minute cities would transform areas that currently depend on

Fifteen Puzzle, puzzle consisting of 15 squares, numbered 1 through 15, which can be slid horizontally or vertically within a four-by-four grid that has one empty space among its 16 locations. The object of the puzzle is to arrange the squares in numerical sequence using only the extra space in the

On April 9, 1865, the commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, Gen. Robert E. Lee, surrendered to his Union counterpart, Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, in Appomattox Court House, Virginia, thus effectively ending the American Civil War. At 3:15 PM (EST) on the 150th anniversary of the event,

Wales: Union with England: …by a second act in 1543. Statutory recognition was now given to the Council of Wales and the Marches, which exercised a jurisdiction over both Wales and four border counties of England. But the council fell into abeyance during the Civil Wars and was finally abolished after the Glorious Revolution…

John Irving: First novels and The World According to Garp: … (1972) received enthusiastic notices, but The 158-Pound Marriage (1974) was roundly panned.

Clint Eastwood: 2000 and beyond: In his next film, The 15:17 to Paris (2018), Eastwood chronicled the 2015 terrorist attack on an Amsterdam-to-Paris train, and he cast the three Americans who thwarted the strike to play themselves. He also directed and starred in The Mule (2018), a drama based on The New York Times…

Hyksos, dynasty of Palestinian origin that ruled northern Egypt as the 15th dynasty (c. 1630–c. 1530 bce; see ancient Egypt: The Second Intermediate period). The name Hyksos was used by the Egyptian historian Manetho (flourished c. 300 bce), who, according to the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus

encyclopaedia: Content arrangement: …of such activities was the 15th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica (1974), which was designed in large part to enhance the role of an encyclopaedia in education and understanding without detracting from its role as a reference book. Its three parts (Propædia, or Outline of Knowledge; Micropædia, or Ready Reference and…

Harlem Hellfighters, nickname given to the 369th Infantry Regiment of the United States Army during World War I. The French government decorated the entire unit with the Croix de Guerre, its highest award for bravery, as well as 170 additional individual medals for valor. The 369th’s battlefield

number symbolism: 16: Because 16 is the square of 4, it inherits favorable attributes. It was popular in ancient India; the Vedas talk of 16-fold incantations, and the Chinese-Indian goddess Pussa has 16 arms. The Rosicrucians believed that nature consisted of 16 elements.

Richard Donner: The 1990s and beyond: He then made 16 Blocks (2006), a scaled-back crime drama featuring Bruce Willis as a burned-out detective who has to transport a witness (an effective Mos Def) a mere 16 blocks to the courthouse where he will testify. The seemingly simple task becomes complicated, however, as numerous armed…

Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Stephen Farthing (2018). Writers’ names appear in parentheses. list, travel, tourism, destinations, Sweden, Stockholm, Gothenburg, Malmö Peder Severin Krøyer, born in

Psyche: Psyche will be the first of the metal-rich asteroids to be explored by a spacecraft. The Psyche spacecraft will orbit the asteroid for 26 months.

The sky includes Earth’s atmosphere and is the location of the planet’s weather, which means there’s a lot happening there. A clear sky usually means a warm and sunny day while a dark, cloudy, and windy day brings warning of an incoming thunderstorm. This list will help you understand a few more

Dogs and cats and snakes, oh my! What are some of the most popular pets around the world, and why are they the way they are? This list will provide you with answers. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book for Kids (and Parents)

Geographos, an Apollo asteroid (one that passes inside Earth’s orbit). Geographos was discovered on September 14, 1951, by American astronomers Albert Wilson and Rudolf Minkowski at the Palomar Observatory. Geographos revolves around the Sun once in 1.39 Earth years in an eccentric moderately

United Kingdom: Factions and favourites: The Parliament of 1621 was a failure at all levels. No legislation other than the subsidy bill was passed; a simple misunderstanding among the members had led to a dramatic confrontation with the king; and judicial impeachments were revived, costing the king the services of Lord…

United Kingdom: Factions and favourites: The Parliament of 1624 was given free rein. All manner of legislation was passed; subsidies for a trade war with Spain were voted; and issues of foreign policy were openly discussed. Firmly in control of political decision making, Charles and Buckingham worked to stave off attacks…

Glorious Revolution, in English history, the events of 1688–89 that resulted in the deposition of James II and the accession of his daughter Mary II and her husband, William III, prince of Orange and stadholder of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. After the accession of James II in 1685, his

ribosomal RNA: …for investigating evolutionary relatedness is 16S rRNA, a sequence of DNA that encodes the RNA component of the smaller subunit of the bacterial ribosome. The 16S rRNA gene is present in all bacteria, and a related form occurs in all cells, including those of eukaryotes. Analysis of the 16S rRNA…

ribosomal RNA: …for investigating evolutionary relatedness is 16S rRNA, a sequence of DNA that encodes the RNA component of the smaller subunit of the bacterial ribosome. The 16S rRNA gene is present in all bacteria, and a related form occurs in all cells, including those of eukaryotes. Analysis of the 16S rRNA…

James Patterson: … (2012), 14th Deadly Sin (2015), 16th Seduction (2017), and The 20th Victim (2020), were written with coauthors. Patterson’s other thriller series included one involving Michael Bennett, a detective. The first installment, Step on a Crack, was published in 2007, and later books included Burn (2004) and Blindside (2020). The NYPD…

16th Street Baptist Church bombing, terrorist attack in Birmingham, Alabama, on September 15, 1963, on the predominantly African American 16th Street Baptist Church by local members of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Resulting in the injury of 14 people and the death of four girls, the attack garnered

number symbolism: 17: In ancient times, in the region of Urartu, near Mount Ararat, the local deity was offered 17-fold sacrifices. The biblical Flood began on the 17th day of the second month and ended on the 17th day of the seventh month. Greek superstition holds the…

Zac Efron: Early movie roles: …Perry in the time-travel comedy 17 Again (2009), the supernatural romance Charlie St. Cloud (2010), and an adaptation of Nicholas Sparks’s novel The Lucky One (2012). Efron also joined the star-studded cast of Lee Daniels’s The Paperboy (2012), which featured Nicole Kidman,

Tomas Tranströmer: Tranströmer’s first collection of poetry, 17 dikter (1954; “Seventeen Poems”), showed the influence of Modernism in its spare language and startling imagery, and it met with critical acclaim. His next volumes, Hemligheter på vägen (1958; “Secrets Along the Way”), Den halvfärdiga himlen (1962; “The Half-Finished Heaven”), and Klanger och spår…

Why do we get sick, and what do our bodies do to prevent sickness? Learn more about the science behind viruses, allergies, vaccines, exercise, and many other influences on people’s health. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book

pregnancy: Endocrine system: …blood and urinary levels of 17-hydroxycorticosteroids, hormones that affect protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism and that are produced by the adrenal glands, rise during pregnancy; but there is no increased effect from the hormones, because their higher level is more than offset by the increased levels of transcortin, a protein…

congenital adrenal hyperplasia: …from excessive secretion of androgenic hormones by the adrenal cortex. It is a disorder in which the deficiency or absence of a single enzyme has far-reaching consequences.

homopteran: Periodical cicada: Broods of both the 17- and 13-year cicadas have been studied. The largest and most widespread brood of the 17-year form occurs in abundance over much of the northeastern quarter of the United States. “Harvest flies,” common black and green species, appear cyclically every two to five years, emerging…

Dag Solstad: … (1996; Professor Andersen’s Night); and 17. Roman (2009; “Novel 17”). He won the Swedish Academy’s Nordic Prize in 2017.

Proclamation of 1763, proclamation declared by the British crown at the end of the French and Indian War in North America, mainly intended to conciliate the Native Americans by checking the encroachment of settlers on their lands. In the centuries since the proclamation, it has become one of the

Proclamation of 1763, proclamation declared by the British crown at the end of the French and Indian War in North America, mainly intended to conciliate the Native Americans by checking the encroachment of settlers on their lands. In the centuries since the proclamation, it has become one of the

Proclamation of 1763, proclamation declared by the British crown at the end of the French and Indian War in North America, mainly intended to conciliate the Native Americans by checking the encroachment of settlers on their lands. In the centuries since the proclamation, it has become one of the

Greece: Resistance to Ottoman rule: …uprising in the Peloponnese in 1770 at the time of the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–74. These uprisings had little chance of success, but during the Tourkokratia there was some armed resistance against the Turks by the klephts (social bandits or brigands). In their banditry the klephts did not distinguish between…

Indiana: Territorial period: Through the Ordinance of 1787 the ceded lands were amalgamated to create the Northwest Territory, which included present-day Indiana. The ordinance prohibited slavery in the region but did not abolish slavery already in existence. In 1800 the Northwest Territory had at least 175 slaves.

Judiciary Act of 1789, act establishing the organization of the U.S. federal court system, which had been sketched only in general terms in the U.S. Constitution. The act established a three-part judiciary—made up of district courts, circuit courts, and the Supreme Court—and outlined the structure

French Revolution, revolutionary movement that shook France between 1787 and 1799. It reached its first climax in 1789 when the ancien régime in France was overthrown. The revolution was a complex series of events in its causes and later in its effects. Its ideas and values—which were associated

Russia: Expansion of the empire: …country by drafting the “Constitution of 3 May 1791,” which provided for stronger royal authority, established four-year sessions of the elected Sejm (the Polish diet), abolished the liberum veto in its proceedings (under the liberum veto, any single member of the Sejm could kill a measure), and introduced significant…