volcanic eruption
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What is a volcanic eruption?
A volcanic eruption happens when molten rock, hot rock fragments, and hot gases erupt through a volcano, which is a vent in a planet's or satellite's crust. Volcanoes erupt because of how heat moves beneath the Earth's surface. Heat from the Earth's interior goes to the surface through convection. Magma rises and erupts at the surface through volcanoes.
Volcanic eruptions can be either effusive or explosive. Effusive eruptions involve basaltic magma that has low viscosity and gas content. Explosive eruptions involve magma that is more viscous and has a higher gas content.
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How do volcanoes form?
Volcanoes mainly form due to heat transfer beneath Earth's surface. Magma, molten or partially molten rock created by the partial melting of Earth's mantle and crust, rises and erupts through volcanoes.
Most volcanoes are linked to plate tectonics. When one plate descends under another, the immense pressure releases water, generating heat that melts nearby rock and forms magma. Because magma is more buoyant than the surrounding rock, it ascends, potentially accumulating in chambers close to the surface. As these chambers fill, the increasing pressure can cause cracks to form above them. Eventually, the upward pressure forces magma through these cracks and out of surface vents as lava. A volcano is technically this vent, but the term can also refer to the landform resulting from the buildup of solidified lava and volcanic debris around the vent.
Volcanoes also occur at hotspots, where rising magma melts through the crust, such as in Hawaii.
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What happens inside the Earth before a volcano erupts?
Volcanic eruptions are driven by heat moving from Earth's interior to its surface via convection of magma, which is molten or partially molten rock formed from the Earth's mantle and crust.
Before a volcano erupts, magma rises and accumulates in chambers beneath the surface, increasing pressure. When the upward pressure from below exceeds the downward pressure from the weight of the rocks above, cracks form. Magma then pushes through these cracks to the surface.
Monitoring activity using seismographs can detect swarms of earthquake tremors caused by the upward movement of magma. Additionally, tiltmeters can identify changes in the slope angle as rising molten rock fills magma chambers, which helps determine when eruptions will occur.
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What types of materials are released during a volcanic eruption?
During a volcanic eruption, various materials are released, including lava, which is molten rock that reaches the Earth's surface, and pyroclastic flows, which are mixtures of hot rock fragments and gases. Volcanic eruptions also emit gases like water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide, as well as smaller amounts of hydrogen, helium, and hydrogen sulfide. The specific composition of these gases depends on factors such as temperature, pressure, and the availability of oxygen.
The escaping magma is shredded into pyroclastic fragments, which are categorized by size as dust, ash, cinders, blocks, and bombs.
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How do volcanic eruptions affect the land and nearby environment?
Volcanic eruptions can significantly alter the landscape and environment through various hazards. Lava flows can engulf and bury land, though new soil eventually develops, with recovery speed depending on the climate. Explosions can hurl volcanic blocks as far as 20 km from the vent, and directed blasts can cause destruction over hundreds of square kilometers. Ashfalls can collapse roofs and destroy crops, leading to famine, but in the long term, ash decomposition creates fertile soils. Gas clouds can scorch vegetation and cause suffocation with gases like carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Additionally, avalanches, tsunamis, and mudflows can occur, reshaping the land and causing widespread destruction. Volcanic eruptions can also affect climate by injecting dust and aerosol droplets into the stratosphere, which can lower average world temperatures.
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How do scientists study and monitor volcanic eruptions to keep people safe?
Volcanologists use various methods to study and monitor volcanic eruptions and protect people. By studying past eruptions, scientists can estimate potential hazards.
Volcano observatories keep track of local earthquake activity and any changes to the volcano's surface. Increased earthquake activity can indicate a higher probability of an eruption. Other methods include using seismographs to detect earthquake tremors caused by magma movement, tiltmeters to measure changes in slope angle as magma chambers fill, and instruments to monitor temperature, gas emissions, and variations in magnetic and gravity fields.
A global system of Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres (VAACs) alerts pilots to volcanic eruption clouds, helping them avoid dangerous ash concentrations.
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volcanic eruption, an eruption of molten rock, hot rock fragments, and hot gases through a volcano, which is a vent in a planet’s or satellite’s crust. Volcanic eruptions can cause disastrous loss of life and property. They range from relatively gentle eruptions, as typically seen in Hawaiian volcanoes, to massively destructive ones, such as the eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed Pompeii in 79 ce. Volcanic eruptions have captured the imagination of people over millennia, and they feature in several mythologies as well as works of fiction. These eruptions also play a role in climate change, with expelled gases such as carbon dioxide contributing to global warming, while ash, dust, and gases such as sulfur dioxide can drive global temperatures down.
How volcanoes erupt
Volcanic eruptions occur as a result of heat moving under Earth’s surface. They often begin with an accumulation of gas-rich magma (molten underground rock) in reservoirs near Earth’s surface, though they may be preceded by emissions of steam and gas from small vents in the ground. Small earthquakes, which may be caused by a rising plug of dense, viscous magma oscillating against a sheath of more permeable magma, may also signal volcanic eruptions, especially explosive ones.
In some cases, magma rises in conduits to the surface as a thin and fluid lava, either flowing out continuously or shooting straight up in glowing fountains or curtains. The eruptions of Hawaii’s volcanoes fall into this category. In other cases, entrapped gases tear the magma into shreds and hurl viscous clots of lava into the air. In more violent eruptions, the magma conduit is hollowed out by an explosive blast, and solid fragments are ejected in a great cloud of ash-laden gas that rises tens of thousands of metres into the air. An example of this phenomenon is the 1980 eruption of Mount Saint Helens. Many explosive eruptions are accompanied by a pyroclastic flow, a fluidized mixture of hot gas and incandescent particles that sweeps down a volcano’s flanks, incinerating everything in its path. If the expelled ash or gases collect on a high snowfield or glacier, they may melt large quantities of ice, and the result can be a disastrous flood or landslide that rushes down a volcano’s slopes.
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Volcanic eruptions can also result in secondary damage, beyond the direct loss to life and property from the eruption itself. Volcanic ash can cause respiratory illnesses such as silicosis and can be particularly harmful to infants and people with chronic lung diseases. Gases such as hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen fluoride can cause both short- and long-term problems. Eruptions can cause economic harm that affects workers’ livelihoods and can force mass migrations of people in affected regions. The 2010 eruption of Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull also demonstrated the threat posed to jet aircraft by high clouds of volcanic ash; this eruption led aviation authorities to ground flights across northern and central Europe for several days.
Volcanoes can be classified by the manner in which they erupt. These six types of volcanic eruptions, starting with the least explosive, make up one classification system: Icelandic, Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian, Pelean, and Plinian. Each name corresponds to a region or to a specific volcano or historical eruption that exemplifies the type.
Volcanic eruptions are not limited to Earth. Jupiter’s moon Io is subject to strong gravitational forces due to Jupiter’s mass as well as interaction with Jupiter’s other moons Europa and Callisto. These forces cause distortions in Io’s shape and make it the most volcanically active body in the solar system. Mars is also known for several volcanoes, with Olympus Mons being the largest known volcano in the solar system. The volcanoes of Mars are shield volcanoes, which have a relatively flat profile, as Mars’s low gravity allows for longer and more widespread lava flows. (According to some estimates, Olympus Mons has been built up by eruptions for more than a billion years, which has resulted in its 700-km [435-mile] diameter.)
Volcanic eruptions in culture
Volcanoes and volcanic eruptions feature in several mythologies and cultural traditions, especially in regions with high volcanic activity. The word volcano is derived from the Latin Volcanus, or Vulcan, the name of the ancient Roman god of fire. The Māori people of New Zealand (Aotearoa)—which lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire—have, in their traditions, a god of volcanoes and earthquakes called Rūaumoko. Pele is the Hawaiian goddess of fire and volcanoes. In Norse mythology, Muspelheim is a hot, glowing land in the south, guarded by Surt, the fire giant.
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Volcanic activity is a common feature in fiction too. In the Inferno section of The Divine Comedy (c. 1308–21), Dante describes Hell as an inverted cone, with the last and innermost circle a fiery lake, symbolic of a volcanic crater. In A Journey to the Centre of the Earth (1864) by Jules Verne, the protagonists commence their journey at the Snæfellsjökull volcano in Iceland, and they return to the surface by way of an eruption at Stromboli in the Mediterranean. Verne also set his The Mysterious Island (1874) on a volcanic island, and it ends with the volcano erupting, obliterating the island. In J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings trilogy (1954–55), the Dark Lord Sauron forges the One Ring of Power in the fiery pits of the volcano Mount Doom, where Frodo and Sam go to destroy the ring. The journey to Mount Doom is the primary plot element in the series.
The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia—the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history—had a tremendous impact on the world’s climate as well as its culture. Tambora expelled as much as 150 cubic km (roughly 36 cubic miles) of ash, pumice and other rock, and aerosols into the atmosphere. These materials blocked substantial amounts of sunlight from reaching Earth’s surface, eventually reducing the average global temperature by as much as 3 °C (5.4 °F). The following year was called the “year without a summer.” It was during this bleak period that Mary Shelley and her literary circle were confined indoors in Geneva, when she conceived of her masterpiece Frankenstein (1818).
When Krakatoa, also in Indonesia, erupted in 1883, the Norwegian artist Edvard Munch, out on a walk, saw the sky turn blood red halfway across the world and later was inspired to paint The Scream in 1893.
Films have also included their fair share of volcanic eruptions as crucial plot points, from the eruption that ends the tribal conflict in One Million Years B.C. (1966) to the triggered-to-erupt volcanic base of the villain Blofeld in the James Bond film You Only Live Twice (1967) to the very obviously named Volcano (1997), in which Tommy Lee Jones and Anne Heche fight off lava from an erupting volcano in Los Angeles. Famous eruptions in history, such as those of Vesuvius and Mount Saint Helens, have featured in numerous films and TV programs.