respiratory disease

respiratory disease, any of the diseases and disorders of the airways and the lungs that affect human respiration.

Diseases of the respiratory system may affect any of the structures and organs that have to do with breathing, including the nasal cavities, the pharynx (or throat), the larynx, the trachea (or windpipe), the bronchi and bronchioles, the tissues of the lungs, and the respiratory muscles of the chest cage.

The respiratory tract is the site of an exceptionally large range of disorders for three main reasons: (1) it is exposed to the environment and therefore may be affected by inhaled organisms, dusts, or gases; (2) it possesses a large network of capillaries through which the entire output of the heart has to pass, which means that diseases that affect the small blood vessels are likely to affect the lung; and (3) it may be the site of “sensitivity” or allergic phenomena that may profoundly affect function.

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This article discusses the signs and symptoms of respiratory disease, the natural defenses of the human respiratory system, the methods of detecting respiratory disease, and the different diseases of the respiratory system. For more information about the anatomy of the human respiratory system and the process of respiration, see human respiratory system.

Signs and symptoms

The symptoms of lung disease are relatively few. Cough is a particularly important sign of all diseases that affect any part of the bronchial tree. A cough productive of sputum is the most important manifestation of inflammatory or malignant diseases of the major airways, of which bronchitis is a common example. In severe bronchitis the mucous glands lining the bronchi enlarge greatly, and, commonly, 30 to 60 ml of sputum are produced in a 24-hour period, particularly in the first two hours after awakening in the morning. An irritative cough without sputum may be caused by extension of malignant disease to the bronchial tree from nearby organs. The presence of blood in the sputum (hemoptysis) is an important sign that should never be disregarded. Although it may result simply from an exacerbation of an existing infection, it may also indicate the presence of inflammation, capillary damage, or a tumour. Hemoptysis is also a classic sign of tuberculosis of the lungs.

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The second most important symptom of lung disease is dyspnea, or shortness of breath. This sensation, of complex origin, may arise acutely, as when a foreign body is inhaled into the trachea, or with the onset of a severe attack of asthma. More often, it is insidious in onset and slowly progressive. What is noted is a slowly progressive difficulty in completing some task, such as walking up a flight of stairs, playing golf, or walking uphill. The shortness of breath may vary in severity, but in diseases such as emphysema (see below Pulmonary emphysema), in which there is irreversible lung damage, it is constantly present. It may become so severe as to immobilize the victim, and tasks such as dressing cannot be performed without difficulty. Severe fibrosis of the lung, resulting from occupational lung disease or arising from no identifiable antecedent condition, may also cause severe and unremitting dyspnea. Dyspnea is also an early symptom of congestion of the lung as a result of impaired function of the left ventricle of the heart. When this occurs, if the right ventricle that pumps blood through the lungs is functioning normally, the lung capillaries become engorged, and fluid may accumulate in small alveoli and airways. It is commonly dyspnea that first causes a patient to seek medical advice, but absence of the symptom does not mean that serious lung disease is not present, since, for example, a small lung cancer that is not obstructing an airway does not produce shortness of breath.

Chest pain may be an early symptom of lung disease, but it is most often associated with an attack of pneumonia, in which case it is due to an inflammation of the pleura that follows the onset of the pneumonic process. Pain associated with inflammation of the pleura is characteristically felt when a deep breath is taken. The pain disappears when fluid accumulates in the pleural space, a condition known as a pleural effusion. Acute pleurisy with pain may signal a blockage in a pulmonary vessel, which leads to acute congestion of the affected part. For example, pulmonary embolism, the occlusion of a pulmonary artery by a fat deposit or by a blood clot that has dislodged from a site elsewhere in the body, can cause pleurisy. Sudden blockage of a blood vessel injures the lung tissue to which the vessel normally delivers blood. In addition, severe chest pain may be caused by the spread of malignant disease to involve the pleura or by a tumour that arises from the pleura itself, such as in mesothelioma. Severe intractable pain caused by such conditions may require surgery to cut the nerves that supply the affected segment. Fortunately, pain of this severity is rare.

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To these major symptoms of lung disease—coughing, dyspnea, and chest pain—may be added several others. A wheeziness in the chest may be heard. This is caused by narrowing of the airways, such as occurs in asthma. Some diseases of the lung are associated with the swelling of the fingertips (and, rarely, of the toes) called “clubbing.” Clubbing may be a feature of bronchiectasis (chronic inflammation and dilation of the major airways), diffuse fibrosis of the lung from any cause, and lung cancer. In the case of lung cancer, this unusual sign may disappear after surgical removal of the tumour. In some lung diseases, the first symptom may be a swelling of the lymph nodes that drain the affected area, particularly the small nodes above the collarbone in the neck; enlargement of the lymph nodes in these regions should always lead to a suspicion of intrathoracic disease. Not infrequently, the presenting symptom of a lung cancer is caused by metastasis, or spread of the tumour to other organs or tissues. Thus, a hip fracture from bone metastases, cerebral signs from intracranial metastases, or jaundice from liver involvement may all be the first evidence of a primary lung cancer, as may sensory changes in the legs, since a peripheral neuropathy may also be the presenting evidence of these tumours.

The generally debilitating effect of many lung diseases is well recognized. A person with active lung tuberculosis or with lung cancer, for example, may be conscious of only a general feeling of malaise, unusual fatigue, or seemingly minor symptoms as the first indication of disease. Loss of appetite and loss of weight, a disinclination for physical activity, general psychological depression, and some symptoms apparently unrelated to the lung, such as mild indigestion or headaches, may be diverse indicators of lung disease. Not infrequently, the patient may feel as one does when convalescent after an attack of influenza. Because the symptoms of lung disease, especially in the early stage, are variable and nonspecific, physical and radiographic examination of the chest are an essential part of the evaluation of persons with these complaints.