radical

radical, in chemistry, molecule that contains at least one unpaired electron. Most molecules contain even numbers of electrons, and the covalent chemical bonds holding the atoms together within a molecule normally consist of pairs of electrons jointly shared by the atoms linked by the bond. Most radicals may be considered to have arisen by cleavage of normal electron-pair bonds, every cleavage having produced two separate entities, each of which contains a single, unpaired electron from the broken bond (in addition to all the rest of the normal, paired electrons of the atoms).

Although free radicals contain unpaired electrons, they may be electrically neutral. Because of their odd electrons, free radicals are usually highly reactive. They combine with one another, or with single atoms that also carry free electrons, to give ordinary molecules, all of whose electrons are paired; or they react with intact molecules, abstracting parts of the molecules to complete their own electron pairs and generating new free radicals in the process. In all these reactions, each simple free radical, because of its single unpaired electron, is able to combine with one other radical or atom containing a single unpaired electron. Under special circumstances, diradicals can be formed with unpaired electrons on each of two atoms (giving an overall even number of electrons), and these diradicals have a combining power of two.

Certain free radicals are stabilized by their peculiar structures; they exist for appreciable lengths of time, given the right conditions. Most free radicals, however, including such simple ones as the methyl (·CH₃) and ethyl (·C₂H₅) radicals, are capable of only the most fleeting independent existence.

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Stable radicals.

The first relatively stable free radical, triphenylmethyl (structure I), was discovered by Moses Gomberg in 1900. In this compound the central carbon

is trivalent since it is combined with three substituents instead of four, and its unshared electron is represented by a dot. Free radicals of the triphenylmethyl type are stable only in certain organic solvents; they are rapidly destroyed by irreversible reactions in the presence of air, water, or strong acids.

In a manner analogous to the above, free radicals are formed by the breaking of the nitrogen–nitrogen bond in aromatic hydrazines of the general structure R₂N―NR₂, or of the central nitrogen–nitrogen bond in aromatic tetrazanes, R₂N―RN―NR―NR₂. Thus, the radical 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (structure II) exists as a stable violet solid. Similar examples of free radicals, in which, however, the odd electron is on oxygen, are also known—e.g., the 2,4,6-tri-tert-butylphenoxy radical (structure III).Still another type of stable radical ion, a metal ketyl, forms when a substance such as benzophenone,

is treated with metallic sodium to give the coloured substance (C₆H₅)₂C―O^-. Similarly, sodium reacts with complex aromatic hydrocarbons such as naphthalene, converting them to highly coloured radical ions.

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A final class of relatively stable organic free radicals are those containing the group > NO. An example is diphenylnitrogen oxide, (C₆H₅)₂NO, which is obtained by the oxidation of diphenylhydroxylamine, (C₆H₅)₂NOH.

Certain structural features appear to be required for the existence of stable free radicals. One condition of particular importance is shown by the semiquinone radical ion IV. As depicted, the upper oxygen atom has a negative charge and the lower one an odd electron. This assignment is arbitrary,however, and the same molecule would be represented if the charge and the odd electron were interchanged. When such a situation is encountered, the actual average distribution of electrons within the molecule is presumed not to be that of either of the structures just described but to be intermediate between the two. This circumstance is called delocalization, or resonance; according to quantum mechanics, the resonance considerably increases the stability of the substance and, as in this case, the probability of its existence. Similar arguments account for the stability of the other free radicals discussed earlier.

Unstable radicals

Simple free radicals such as methyl, ·CH₃, also exist and play key roles as transient intermediates in many chemical reactions. The existence of the methyl radical was first demonstrated by Friedrich A. Paneth and W. Hofeditz in 1929 by the following experiment. The vapours of tetramethyllead, Pb(CH₃)₄, mixed with gaseous hydrogen, H₂, were passed through a silica tube at low pressure. When a portion of the tube was heated to about 800° C, the tetramethyllead was decomposed and a mirror of metallic lead deposited on the internal surface of the tube. The gaseous products of the decomposition were found capable of causing the disappearance of a second lead mirror, deposited at a more distant cool point in the tube. Since none of the recognized stable products of the decomposition was able similarly to dissolve a lead mirror, the inference was drawn that methyl radicals formed in the high-temperature decomposition reacted with lead at the cool mirror to regenerate tetramethyllead. Methyl radicals obtained in this way proved to be highly reactive and short-lived. They not only reacted with lead and other metals but also disappeared rapidly and spontaneously, largely by dimerization to ethane, H₃C―CH₃. Techniques for producing reactive free radicals in the gas phase have been greatly extended by subsequent research. It has been found that various unstable species, such as ethyl, (·C₂H₅), propyl, (·C₃H₇), and hydroxyl, (·OH), can be obtained by several methods including: (1) photochemical decomposition of a variety of organic and inorganic materials, (2) reaction between sodium vapour and an alkyl halide, and (3) discharge of electricity through a gas at low pressure. Atoms that arise from dissociation of a diatomic molecule (e.g., the chlorine atom, ·Cl, from the dissociation of the chlorine molecule, Cl₂) can also be obtained and have the properties of short-lived radicals of this type.

The existence of the various known unstable free radicals is most commonly demonstrated by the reactions that they undergo. Thus, ethyl radicals, formed from tetraethyllead, Pb(C₂H₅)₄, dissolve zinc and antimony mirrors. The resulting ethyl derivatives of zinc and antimony, Zn(C₂H₅)₂ and Sb(C₂H₅)₃, have been isolated and chemically identified. In a few instances, unstable radicals also have been identified spectroscopically. Here the important technique of flash photolysis, the use of a single, intense flash of light to produce a momentary high concentration of free radicals, is used.

Transient, unstable free radicals also may be produced in solution by several means. A number of molecules, of which organic peroxides are typical, possess such weak chemical bonds that they decompose irreversibly into free radicals on warming in solution. Diacetyl peroxide, for example,is considered to decompose, at least in large part, into carbon dioxide, CO₂, and methyl radicals. These, in turn, rapidly attack most organic solvents, often by abstracting hydrogen to given methane, CH₄, together with other products. Irradiation of solutions of many organic substances with ultraviolet light leads to the absorption of sufficient energy to disrupt chemical bonds and produce free radicals, and, in fact, most photochemical processes are at present thought to involve free-radical intermediates. The chemical changes that occur when solutions (and also gases) are exposed to high-energy radiation also appear to involve the transient formation of free radicals.

It is generally considered that free radicals are transient intermediates in many high-temperature reactions (such as combustion and the thermal cracking of hydrocarbons), in many photochemical processes, and in a number of other important reactions in organic chemistry, although the concentrations of the free radical intermediates are in general too low for direct detection. One class of free-radical reaction is of particular importance and is illustrated by the following example. Methane, CH₄, reacts with chlorine, Cl₂, by an overall process that gives chloromethane, CH₃Cl, and hydrogen chloride, HCl. The reaction is enormously accelerated by light and apparently involves the following steps:Chlorine atoms are produced in (1) and destroyed in (4), while the products that are actually isolated arise from (2) and (3). Since chlorine atoms consumed in (2) are regenerated in (3), a single atom of chlorine can lead to the production of many molecules of chloromethane. Such processes, in which an intermediate is continually regenerated, are known as chain reactions, and their study constitutes an important branch of chemical kinetics. Similar chains involving transient free radicals are involved in the halogenation of many other organic molecules, in many of the polymerization reactions that are employed in the manufacture of plastics and synthetic rubber, and in the reaction of molecular oxygen, O₂, with a great number of organic molecules.