A conifer is a division of gymnospermous plants called Pinophyta, typically with needle-shaped evergreen leaves and seeds attached to the scales of a woody cone. Conifers are diverse, with approximately 630 living species across six families. They are among the oldest and largest living things on Earth. Most commercial lumber in the Northern Hemisphere comes from conifers such as pine, Douglas fir, spruce, fir, and hemlock. Coniferous forests are found in areas with long winters and moderate to high annual precipitation.

How do conifers differ from other types of plants?

Conifers, belonging to the gymnosperm group, differ from other plants in several ways: * Reproduction Conifers bear seeds exposed on cone scales, unlike angiosperms (flowering plants) that enclose seeds in a carpel or pistil. Leaves Conifer leaves are typically needle-shaped or scale-like to minimize water loss, while other plants exhibit a wider variety of leaf shapes. Wood The wood of conifers is simpler in structure compared to angiosperms , mainly consisting of tracheids. Evolutionary History Gymnosperms , including conifers, are ancient, with the earliest seed-like bodies dating back to the Upper Devonian Series. Most conifers are evergreen, with a few exceptions like bald cypress, dawn redwood, and larch, which are deciduous. They are also ecologically important, especially in boreal and montane forests, where they can make up a significant portion of the living matter.

What are the main characteristics of conifer leaves and seeds?

Conifer leaves are typically simple and small, often needle-like or scale-like, minimizing water loss with features like a thick, waxy coating and sunken stomates. However, they exhibit diversity, ranging from minute scales to broad blades up to 30 cm long. Most conifers are evergreen, though some, like bald cypress and larch, are deciduous. Conifer seeds consist of a dormant embryo within the female gametophyte, surrounded by a seed coat with three layers. The hard middle layer protects the embryo, while the outer fleshy layer aids in animal dispersal for some species. Germination in cool temperate species often requires a winter period before a seedling root emerges. All conifers are pollinated by wind, and pollen grains of some species have air bladders.

Where can conifers commonly be found in the world?

Conifers can be found almost everywhere on the globe, from the Arctic Circle to the Southern Hemisphere's tree-growth limits. They dominate the boreal forests (taiga) of northern Eurasia and North America. The richest north temperate conifer forests are in mid-latitude mountain systems. Most tropical conifers are limited to cooler mountain areas, while some inhabit lower elevations. Conifers are widespread in southern temperate regions, with the greatest diversity in the humid portions of the three southern continents. The Eurasian continent is richest in conifers, but every region has its own endemic genera and species.

How do conifers adapt to survive in cold climates?

Conifers have several adaptations that allow them to thrive in cold climates. Their leaves, whether scale-like or needle-shaped, are designed to minimize water loss, which is crucial in freezing conditions when water is scarce. Many conifer leaves also possess a thick, waxy coating that makes them waterproof. Additionally, the gas-exchange openings (stomates) are sunken into chambers, shielded from direct contact with the dry air. The stems of conifers raise the leaves into the light. The bark that clothes the trunks may be thin, smooth, and flaky, peeling annually to reveal fresh bright colors, or it may accumulate in broad, colorful plates, or as thick, fireproof, fibrous ridges.

What ecological roles do conifers play in their environments?

Conifers play vital ecological roles, especially in Northern Hemisphere's boreal and montane forests, where they can constitute over 90% of the living matter, significantly contributing to the biosphere through photosynthesis . Many conifer forests rely on fires for regeneration, as fires clear the understory and stimulate seed germination. Additionally, forests and their soils act as filters and sponges, crucial for watershed management and erosion control. They also aid in carbon sequestration , storing carbon in plants and soil.

conifer

Images

The massive Grizzly Giant sequoia tree stands with a wide, reddish-brown trunk and a hollowed base, surrounded by other tall trees in Mariposa Grove, Yosemite National Park.

Illustration comparing the heights of various conifer species, including coast redwood, giant sequoia, Douglas fir, western red cedar, European larch, Scots pine, white spruce, and Italian cypress, with a magnified inset showing a Douglas fir branch with needles and cones. Height measurements in feet and meters are marked alongside the trees for scale.

Plate 4: Fleshy red appendages of fruits of the yew (Taxus), which attract birds.

At a Glance

conifer summary

conifer

plant

Also known as: Coniferophyta

Written by

James Emory Eckenwalder

Fact-checked by

Britannica Editors

History

Top Questions

What is a conifer?
A conifer is a division of gymnospermous plants called Pinophyta, typically with needle-shaped evergreen leaves and seeds attached to the scales of a woody cone. Conifers are diverse, with approximately 630 living species across six families. They are among the oldest and largest living things on Earth. Most commercial lumber in the Northern Hemisphere comes from conifers such as pine, Douglas fir, spruce, fir, and hemlock. Coniferous forests are found in areas with long winters and moderate to high annual precipitation.
4 Britannica Sources
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
How do conifers differ from other types of plants?
Conifers, belonging to the gymnosperm group, differ from other plants in several ways:
* Reproduction Conifers bear seeds exposed on cone scales, unlike angiosperms (flowering plants) that enclose seeds in a carpel or pistil.
- Leaves Conifer leaves are typically needle-shaped or scale-like to minimize water loss, while other plants exhibit a wider variety of leaf shapes.
- Wood The wood of conifers is simpler in structure compared to angiosperms, mainly consisting of tracheids.
- Evolutionary History Gymnosperms, including conifers, are ancient, with the earliest seed-like bodies dating back to the Upper Devonian Series.
Most conifers are evergreen, with a few exceptions like bald cypress, dawn redwood, and larch, which are deciduous. They are also ecologically important, especially in boreal and montane forests, where they can make up a significant portion of the living matter.
5 Britannica Sources
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
What are the main characteristics of conifer leaves and seeds?
Conifer leaves are typically simple and small, often needle-like or scale-like, minimizing water loss with features like a thick, waxy coating and sunken stomates. However, they exhibit diversity, ranging from minute scales to broad blades up to 30 cm long. Most conifers are evergreen, though some, like bald cypress and larch, are deciduous.

Conifer seeds consist of a dormant embryo within the female gametophyte, surrounded by a seed coat with three layers. The hard middle layer protects the embryo, while the outer fleshy layer aids in animal dispersal for some species. Germination in cool temperate species often requires a winter period before a seedling root emerges. All conifers are pollinated by wind, and pollen grains of some species have air bladders.
4 Britannica Sources
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
Where can conifers commonly be found in the world?
Conifers can be found almost everywhere on the globe, from the Arctic Circle to the Southern Hemisphere's tree-growth limits. They dominate the boreal forests (taiga) of northern Eurasia and North America. The richest north temperate conifer forests are in mid-latitude mountain systems.

Most tropical conifers are limited to cooler mountain areas, while some inhabit lower elevations. Conifers are widespread in southern temperate regions, with the greatest diversity in the humid portions of the three southern continents. The Eurasian continent is richest in conifers, but every region has its own endemic genera and species.
5 Britannica Sources
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
How do conifers adapt to survive in cold climates?
Conifers have several adaptations that allow them to thrive in cold climates. Their leaves, whether scale-like or needle-shaped, are designed to minimize water loss, which is crucial in freezing conditions when water is scarce. Many conifer leaves also possess a thick, waxy coating that makes them waterproof. Additionally, the gas-exchange openings (stomates) are sunken into chambers, shielded from direct contact with the dry air.

The stems of conifers raise the leaves into the light. The bark that clothes the trunks may be thin, smooth, and flaky, peeling annually to reveal fresh bright colors, or it may accumulate in broad, colorful plates, or as thick, fireproof, fibrous ridges.
1 Britannica Source
1. conifer: Leaves
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
What ecological roles do conifers play in their environments?
Conifers play vital ecological roles, especially in Northern Hemisphere's boreal and montane forests, where they can constitute over 90% of the living matter, significantly contributing to the biosphere through photosynthesis.

Many conifer forests rely on fires for regeneration, as fires clear the understory and stimulate seed germination. Additionally, forests and their soils act as filters and sponges, crucial for watershed management and erosion control. They also aid in carbon sequestration, storing carbon in plants and soil.
3 Britannica Sources
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.

Conifer heightsThe heights of selected conifers and a highlight of the needle-and-cone configuration of the Douglas fir (*Pseudotsuga*).

conifer, any member of the division Pinophyta, class Pinopsida, order Pinales, made up of living and fossil gymnospermous plants that usually have needle-shaped evergreen leaves and seeds attached to the scales of a woody bracted cone. Among living gymnosperm divisions, the conifers show little similarity to the Cycadophyta and Gnetophyta but share several vegetative and reproductive traits with the Ginkgophyta. Conifers are most abundant in cool temperate and boreal regions, where they are important timber trees and ornamentals, but they are most diverse in warmer areas, including tropical mountains.

General features

Diversity of size and structure

The conifers are the most varied gymnosperms. The world’s oldest trees are the 5,000-year-old bristlecone pines (Pinus longaeva) of desert mountains in California and Nevada. The largest trees are the giant sequoias (Sequoiadendron giganteum) of the Sierra Nevada of California, reaching heights of more than 95 metres (312 feet) and weights of at least 2 million kilograms (4.4 million pounds; compared with 190,000 kilograms for the largest recorded blue whale). Wherever conifers grow, especially in temperate climates, one of these species is usually the tallest tree. In fact, the very tallest trees are the coast redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) of coastal California, some of which are more than 110 metres (361 feet) tall.

The world’s smallest trees probably are also conifers: the natural bonsai cypresses (Cupressus goveniana) and lodgepole pines (Pinus contorta) of the pygmy forests (adjacent to the towering redwood forests) of the northern California coasts. On the sterile hardpan soils of those astounding forests, the trees may reach full maturity at under 0.2 metre (0.7 foot) in height, while individuals of the same species on richer, deeper soils can grow to more than 30 metres (98 feet). Other conifers, such as the pygmy pine (Lepidothamnus laxifolius) of New Zealand, the smallest conifer, are always shrubby and may mature as shorter plants (less than 8 centimetres [3.15 inches] in height) than the pygmy cypress, but with greater spread.

conifer

General features

Diversity of size and structure

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