conifer: References & Edit History
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Additional Reading
For information on conifers, see Gerd Krüssmann, Manual of Cultivated Conifers, 2nd rev. ed. (1985; originally published in German, 1983), an extensively illustrated account of cultivars and species of conifers used in gardens; D.M. van Gelderen and J.R.P. van Hoey Smith, Conifers (1986), a pictorial work complementing Krüssmann’s book with colour photographs; N.T. Mirov, The Genus Pinus (1967), a thorough treatment of all aspects of the biology of the many species of this important temperate genus; George S. Allen and John N. Owens, The Life History of Douglas Fir (1972), a detailed description of the reproductive cycle of the conifer; Rudolf Florin, “Evolution in Cordaites and Conifers,” Acta Horti Bergiani 15(11):286–388 (1951), a summary of the definitive research on the evolution of seed cones in coniferophytes, and “The Distribution of Conifer and Taxad Genera in Time and Space,” Acta Horti Bergiani 20(4):122–312 (1963), an important survey, with thorough maps of distributions of living and fossil coniferophytes; Charles B. Beck (ed.), Origin and Evolution of Gymnosperms (1988), a collection of studies of fossil conifers with important discussions of early species; J.A. Hart, “A Cladistic Analysis of Conifers: Preliminary Results,” Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 68:269–307 (July 1987), a new approach to discovering relationships among conifer genera; J.E. Eckenwalder, “Re-evaluation of Cupressaceae and Taxodiaceae: A Proposed Merger,” Madroño 23(5):237–256 (1976), an original look at family relationships between extant conifers; and K.U. Kramer and P.S. Green (eds.), Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms (1990), a summary of conifer classification.
Article Contributors
Primary Contributors
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James Emory Eckenwalder
Associate Professor of Botany, University of Toronto.
Other Encyclopedia Britannica Contributors
Article History
| Type | Description | Contributor | Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| Invalidated site: The Spruce - The Difference Between Evergreens and Conifers. | Aug 12, 2025 | ||
| Links added. | Sep 21, 2023 | ||
| Corrected display issue. | Sep 08, 2022 | ||
| Add new Web site: The Spruce - The Difference Between Evergreens and Conifers. | Apr 17, 2022 | ||
| Add new Web site: The Canadian Encyclopedia - Coniferous Tree. | Aug 31, 2016 | ||
| Added cross-references throughout. | Apr 13, 2015 | ||
| Add new Web site: Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand - Conifers. | Jan 10, 2014 | ||
| Add new Web site: University of California Museum of Paleontology - The Conifers. | Jan 10, 2014 | ||
| Added diagram depicting heights of different conifers. | May 17, 2010 | ||
| Added new Web site: How Stuff Works - Science - Conifer. | Feb 05, 2009 | ||
| Bibliography thoroughly revised. | Sep 03, 2008 | ||
| Article revised and updated. | Sep 03, 2008 | ||
| Added new Web site: Backyard Nature - Conifer. | Apr 22, 2008 | ||
| Added new Web site: American Conifer Society - Introduction to Conifers. | Sep 26, 2007 | ||
| Added new Web site: Forestry Commission - The Mightiest Conifer in Europe. | Sep 26, 2007 | ||
| Article revised. | Mar 02, 2001 | ||
| Article added to new online database. | Jul 20, 1998 |