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Why did China view the 1858 and 1860 territorial agreements with Russia as unequal treaties?

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Topographic map of the Amur River basin and its drainage network, covering parts of northeastern China, eastern Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea. The map uses color shading to indicate elevation, shows major rivers and tributaries, surrounding mountain ranges, swamps, marshes, and lakes, and includes a locator inset of the region within Asia. Major cities, railways, and dams are also marked. — Amur River The Amur River basin and its drainage network.

China viewed the 1858 Treaty of Aigun and the 1860 Beijing Convention as "unequal treaties" because they were forced upon the country under the pressure of foreign military aggression and internal instability.12

During this period, China was severely weakened by the Second Opium War against Great Britain and France, as well as the domestic turmoil of the Taiping Rebellion. Taking advantage of this vulnerability, Russia exerted significant pressure to secure territorial and sovereign concessions.23

The agreements were considered unequal because they compelled China to:
* Cede Territory: China lost control over vast regions, including lands north of the Amur River and the territory east of the Ussuri River, which included the site of Vladivostok.12
* Grant Exclusive Rights: The treaties restricted navigation of the Amur, Ussuri, and Sungari rivers to only Russian and Chinese vessels, effectively limiting China's sovereign control over its own waterways.14

These treaties were part of a broader pattern where imperialist powers forced China to concede rights and territory through coercion, undermining its national sovereignty.13