Holy Roman Empire

Introduction & Top Questions
Nature of the empire
Origins of the empire and sources of imperial ideas
- Religious origins
- Political origins
Coronation of Charlemagne as emperor
Charlemagne’s successors
- The Carolingian Empire
- The Ottonian Empire
Empire and papacy
- The Investiture Controversy
- The Hohenstaufen emperors
The empire after Frederick II
- The effect of the Reformation
- The end of the empire
Holy Roman emperors

References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics

Images, Videos & Interactives

Map of Europe about 800 CE showing the extent of the Frankish kingdom under Charlemagne in light purple, covering much of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, and neighboring regions. Areas inhabited by Slavic peoples who were tributary to Charlemagne are shaded in a darker purple to the east of the Frankish kingdom, including groups such as the Bohemians, Moravians, and Croats. Major cities, rivers, and neighboring kingdoms are labeled for context.

Thematic map of Europe and the Mediterranean showing the routes of various barbarian groups during the invasions of the late Roman Empire. Colored arrows trace the migrations of groups such as the Goths, Vandals, Franks, Saxons, and others, with boundaries of the Roman Empire in 395 CE and subsequent political divisions marked. Major kingdoms and cities are labeled, illustrating the movement and settlement patterns of these peoples.

Charlemagne: His influence on religion and politics

Illuminated manuscript portrait of Louis the Pious as a Christian Roman emperor, holding a staff and shield, with Latin text arranged around and over the figure.

Image of the Imperial seal of Arnulf of Carinthia

plaque with Christ receiving Magdeburg Cathedral from Emperor Otto I

At a Glance

Holy Roman Empire summary

Quizzes

"Napoleon Crossing the Alps" oil on canvas by Jacques-Louis David, 1800; in the collection of Musee national du chateau de Malmaison.

Emperors and Empresses from Around the (Non-Roman) World Quiz

Related Questions

How did Charlemagne protect the papacy before his imperial coronation?
How did Charlemagne’s coronation in 800 help create the Holy Roman Empire?
How did Conrad II unite Germany, Italy, and Burgundy under the Roman Empire title?
How did Frederick II’s conflicts with the papacy weaken the Holy Roman Empire?
How did Henry VI gain control of southern Italy and Sicily?
How did Otto II try to expand imperial power in southern Italy?
How did Rudolf I of Habsburg make the Habsburg dynasty powerful?
How did the Concordat of Worms resolve the Investiture Controversy?
How did the Golden Bull of 1356 set rules for electing the emperor?
How did the Holy Roman Empire differ from a centralized kingdom such as France?
How did the Investiture Controversy change the balance of power between popes and emperors?
How did the Protestant Reformation divide the Holy Roman Empire?
How did the Treaty of Pressburg weaken Austria’s position in Germany?
How did the revival of Roman law support Frederick Barbarossa’s claims to imperial authority?
What role did the Imperial Diet play in the government of the Holy Roman Empire?
What was the Everlasting Diet at Regensburg?
When did the Holy Roman Empire begin and end?
When did the term Holy Roman Empire first appear?
Who belonged to the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire?
Why could the Holy Roman emperor not change the wording of a Diet resolution?
Why did Bavaria and Württemberg become kingdoms after supporting Napoleon?
Why did Charles VI’s death without a male heir lead to the War of the Austrian Succession?
Why did Francis II dissolve the Holy Roman Empire in 1806?
Why did Frederick Barbarossa clash with the Lombard League?
Why did Otto III make Rome central to his plans for the empire?
Why did Pope John XII ask Otto I to come to Italy?
Why did foreign powers such as Sweden and France take part in the Thirty Years’ War?
Why did the Golden Bull of 1356 establish seven electors?
Why did the Habsburg family usually hold the imperial crown?
Why did the Reformation reduce Emperor Charles V’s control over Germany?
Why was the Holy Roman Empire not called by that exact name when Charlemagne was crowned?
How was the Holy Roman Empire formed?
Why did the Holy Roman Empire fall?
Is ancient Greece a country?
Was ancient Greece a democracy?
Why is ancient Greece important?
What significant political change occurred in Romania in 1989?
What is Denmark?
Where is Denmark located in Europe?
What language do people speak in Denmark?
What type of government does Denmark have?

Geography & Travel Historic Places

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External Websites

Humanities LibreTexts - The Holy Roman Empire
University of Michigan Law School Scholarship Repository - Jurisdiction Without Territory: From the Holy Roman Empire to the Responsibility to Protect (PDF)
History Today - The End of the Holy Roman Empire
UNRV History - Roman Empire
World History Encyclopedia - Holy Roman Empire

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Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.

Holy Roman Empire - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
Holy Roman Empire - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)

Holy Roman Empire

historical empire, Europe

Also known as: Heiliges Römisches Reich, Sacrum Romanum Imperium(Show More)

Written by

Geoffrey Barraclough

Chichele Professor of Modern History, University of Oxford, 1970–73. President, The Historical Association, 1964–67.

Geoffrey Barraclough

Fact-checked by

Britannica Editors

Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....

Britannica Editors

History

Holy Roman Empire, the varying complex of lands in western and central Europe ruled by the Holy Roman emperor, a title held first by Frankish and then by German kings for 10 centuries. The Holy Roman Empire existed for over a millennium from 800 to 1806. The empire was in many ways an attempt to resurrect the fallen Western Roman Empire. Its principal powers were the emperor, the Pope, and an increasingly decentralized federation of...

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