Although there are no standard forms in inland marine insurance, most contracts follow a typical pattern. They are usually written on a named-peril basis covering such perils of transportation as collision, derailment, rising water, tornado, fire, lightning, and windstorm. The policies generally exclude losses resulting from pilferage, strike, riot, civil commotion, war, delay of shipments, loss of markets, illegal trade, or leakage and breakage.

The scope of inland marine is greatly extended by means of “floater” policies. These are used to insure certain types of movable property whether or not the property is actually in transit. Business floater policies are purchased by jewelers, launderers, dry cleaners, tailors, upholsterers, and other persons who hold the property of others while performing services. Personal property floaters are used to cover, on a comprehensive basis, any item of personal property owned by a private individual. They may also cover the property of visitors, or the property of servants while on the premises of the insured. They exclude certain types of property for which other contracts have been designed, such as automobiles, aircraft, motorcycles, animals, or business and professional equipment.

Liability insurance arises mainly from the operation of the law of negligence. Individuals who, in the eyes of the law, fail to act reasonably or to exercise due care may find themselves subject to large liability claims. Court judgments have been issued for sums so large as to require a lifetime to pay.

There are at least four major types of liability insurance contracts: (1) liability arising out of the use of automobiles, (2) liability arising out of the conduct of a business, (3) liability arising from professional negligence (applicable to doctors, lawyers, etc.), and (4) personal liability, including the liability of a private individual operating a home, carrying on sporting activities, and so on.

Practically all liability contracts falling in these four categories have some common elements. One is the insuring clause, in which the insurer agrees to pay on behalf of the insured all sums that the insured shall become legally obligated to pay as damages because of bodily injury, sickness or disease, wrongful death, or injury to another person’s property. The liability policy covers only claims that an insured becomes legally obligated to pay; voluntary payments are not covered. It is often necessary to resort to legal or court action to determine the amount of these damages, although in a vast majority of cases the damages are settled out of court by negotiation between the parties.

All liability insurance contracts contain clauses that obligate the insurer to conduct a court defense and to pay any settlement, including premiums on bonds, interest on judgments pending appeal, medical and surgical expenses that are necessary at the time of the accident, and other costs. Liability insurance has sometimes been termed defense insurance because of this provision. The insurer agrees to defend a suit even though it is false or fraudulent, so long as it is a suit stemming from a peril insured against. The insured is required to cooperate with the insurer in all court actions by appearing in court, if necessary, to give testimony.

Practically all liability insurance policies contain limitations on the maximum amount of a judgment payable under the contract. Further, the cost of defense, supplementary payments, and punitive damages may or may not be paid in addition to the judgment limits. Separate limits often apply to claims for property damage and bodily injury. An annual aggregate limit may also be purchased, which puts a maximum on the amount an insurer must pay in any one policy period.

Limits may apply on a per-occurrence or a claims-made basis. In the former, which gives the most comprehensive coverage, the policy in force in year one covers a negligent act that took place in year one, no matter when a claim is made. If the policy is made on a claims-made basis, the insurance in force when a claim is presented pays the loss. Under this policy, a claim can be made for losses that occur during the policy period but have their origins in events preceding its starting date; the period of time before this date for which claims can be made is, however, restricted. For an additional premium the discovery period can be extended beyond the end of the policy period. The claims-made basis for liability insurance is considered much more restrictive than a per-occurrence policy.

Liability insurance contracts have in common the fact that the definition of “the insured” is broad. An automobile liability policy, for example, includes not only the owner but anyone else operating the car with permission. In business liability insurance, all partners, officers, directors, or proprietors are covered by the policy regardless of their direct responsibility for any act of negligence. Other parties may be included for an extra premium.

Another element common to all liability insurance policies is certain exclusions. Policies covering business activities almost invariably exclude liability arising out of the personal activities of the insured. Each kind of liability contract tends to exclude the liability for which another contract has been devised: a personal liability coverage in the homeowner’s contract, for example, excludes automobile liability because a special contract has been created for this particular type of liability.

Another common element in liability policies is subrogation: the insurer retains the right to bring an action against a liable third party for any loss this third party has caused.