Aviation insurance normally covers physical damage to the aircraft and legal liability arising out of its ownership and operation. Specific policies are also available to cover the legal liability of airport owners arising out of the operation of hangars or from the sale of various aviation products. These latter policies are similar to other types of liability contracts.

Perhaps the major underwriting problem is the “catastrophic” exposure to loss. The largest passenger aircraft may incur losses of $300,000,000 or more, counting both liability and physical damage exposures. The number of aircraft of any particular type is not large enough for the accurate prediction of losses, and each type of aircraft has its special characteristics and equipment. Thus a great deal of independent individual underwriting is necessary. Rate making is complex and specialized. It is further complicated by rapid technological change and by the constant appearance of new hazards.

Policies are written to cover liability of the owner or operator for bodily injury to passengers or to persons other than passengers and for property damage. Medical costs, including loss of income, are usually paid to passengers suffering permanent total disability without the requirement of proving negligence. This type of coverage has been called admitted liability insurance.

Workers’ compensation insurance, sometimes called industrial injury insurance, compensates workers for losses suffered as a result of work-related injuries. Payments are made regardless of negligence. The schedule of benefits making up the compensation is determined by statute.

The scope of employment injury laws, originally limited to persons in forms of employment recognized as hazardous, has, as the result of associating the right to compensation with the existence of a contract of service, been gradually extended to clerical employment. Nevertheless, the large exception of agricultural employees continues in some developing countries, Canada, much of the United States, and the countries of eastern Europe. Other classes of exception are employees in very small undertakings and domestic servants. The exclusion of employees with middle-class salaries persists in parts of the former British Empire. In a few countries, working employers are permitted to insure themselves as well as their employees.

The notion of employment injury was at first confined to injuries of accidental origin, but during the 20th century it was extended to include occupational diseases in increasing number. To entitle the worker to benefit, the accident must occur during employment, and many laws also require the accident to have been caused by the employment in some way; however, the trend seems to be toward accepting the former condition as sufficient. Following the German law of 1925, some 30 countries included accidents occurring on the way to and from work. Injuries due to the employee’s willful misconduct are generally excluded. Occupational diseases are covered to some extent by virtually all national laws.

Four classes of benefits are provided by compulsory insurance, and, except for certain diseases, a right to them is acquired without any qualifying period of previous employment. First is a medical benefit, which includes all necessary treatment and the supply of artificial limbs. If its duration is limited, the maximum is likely to be one year. Second is a temporary incapacity benefit, which lasts as long as the medical benefit except that a waiting period of a few days is frequently prescribed. The benefit varies from country to country, ranging from 50 percent of the employee’s wage to 100 percent; the most common benefits are 66 2 3 percent and 75 percent. Third is a permanent incapacity benefit, which, unless the degree is very small, in which case a lump sum is paid, takes the form of a pension. If the incapacity is total, the pension is usually equal to the temporary incapacity benefit. If the incapacity is partial, the pension is proportionately smaller. In some 60 countries an additional pension is granted if the victim needs constant attendance. In cases of death, the pensions are distributed to the widow (or invalid widower) and minor children, and, if the maximum total has not then been attained, other dependents may receive small pensions. The maximum is the same as for total incapacity.

In a growing number of industrialized countries (Austria, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, the Netherlands, and Switzerland) the fourth type of benefit—systematic arrangements for retraining and rehabilitation of seriously injured persons—is provided, and employers may even be required to provide employment to such persons.

Almost all systems of employment injury insurance are financed by employers’ contributions exclusively, and in almost all these systems the contribution is proportional to the risk represented by the class of activity in which the employer is engaged. Usually the insurance institution adapts the contribution to the accident experience of the undertaking individually or to any special preventive measures it may have taken. On the other hand, mainly for simplicity, but partly perhaps in order to subsidize basic but dangerous industries, a uniform contribution rate for all classes of activity has been established in several countries.

Social insurance against employment injury, as against other risks, is in most countries administered by institutions under the joint management of employers and employees and often of government representatives as well; in eastern Europe, however, the administration is entrusted to trade unions. Disputes are settled by arbitral organs without resort to the courts.

In the United States an employer may comply with the provisions of most workers’ compensation laws in three ways: by purchasing a private workers’ compensation and employer liability policy from a commercial insurer, by purchasing coverage through a state fund set up for this purpose, or by setting aside reserves sufficient to cover the risks involved. Most workers’ compensation benefits are financed by the first two methods.

State laws in the United States are not uniform with respect to the amount of the monetary compensation or length of time for which income payments are made. For example, only about half the states give lifetime income benefits for occupational injuries. In others there is a statutory limitation of between 400 and 500 weeks of payments. Again, most states provide liquidating damages for an injury that is permanent but does not totally incapacitate the worker, such as the loss of an arm or leg. The size of these liquidating damages varies greatly. Most state laws also provide complete medical benefits, including rehabilitation expenses, and survivors’ benefits in the event of the worker’s death.