Among the excluded perils (or exclusions) of homeowner’s policies are the following: loss due to freezing when the dwelling is vacant or unoccupied, unless stated precautions are taken; loss from weight of ice or snow to property such as fences, swimming pools, docks, or retaining walls; theft loss when the building is under construction; vandalism loss when the dwelling is vacant beyond 30 days; damage from gradual water leakage; termite damage; loss from rust, mold, dry rot, contamination, smog, and settling and cracking; loss from animals or insects; loss from earth movement, flood, war, or spoilage (e.g., chemical deterioration); loss from neglect of the insured to protect the property following a loss; and losses arising out of business pursuits. Special forms for business risks are available (see below).

Under named-peril forms, only losses from the perils named in the policy are covered. The named perils are sometimes defined narrowly; for example, theft claims are not paid if the property is merely lost and theft cannot be established.

Earthquake and flood loss, while excluded from the basic homeowner’s forms, may usually be covered by endorsement.

Homeowner’s policies may include the following conditions: (1) Owners are required to give immediate written notice of loss to the insurer or the insurer’s agent. (2) The insured must provide proof of the amount of loss. This suggests that owners should keep accurate records of the items in a building and of their original cost. (3) The insured must cooperate with the insurer in settling a loss. (4) The insured must pay the premium in advance. (5) The insurer has a right of subrogation (i.e., of pursuing liable third parties for any loss). This prevents an owner from collecting twice, once from the insurer and once from a liable third party. (6) A mortgagee’s interest in a property can be protected. (7) The policy may be canceled by the insurer upon due notice, usually 10 days. If the insurer cancels, a pro rata refund of premium must be returned to the insured; if the insured cancels, a less-than-proportionate return of a premium may be recovered from the insurer. (8) Fraud by the insured, including misrepresentation or concealment of material facts concerning the risk, is ground for denial of benefits by the insurer.

Also available is a form called renter’s insurance, which provides personal property insurance for tenants.

Insurance for business property follows a pattern that is similar in many ways to the one for individual property. A commonly used form is the “building and personal property coverage form” (BPP). This form permits a business owner to cover in one policy the buildings, fixtures, machinery and equipment, and personal property used in business and the personal property of others for which the business owner is responsible. Coverage also can be extended to insure newly acquired property, property on newly acquired premises, valuable papers and records, property temporarily off the business premises, and outdoor property such as fences, signs, and antennas.

Coverage on the BPP form can be written on a scheduled basis, whereby specific items of property are listed and insured, or on a blanket basis, whereby property at several locations can be insured for a single sum.

Perils insured under the BPP are listed in the policy. All-risk coverage is also written, subject to specified exclusions.

Losses may be settled on a replacement-cost coverage on the BPP by endorsement. Otherwise recovery is on an actual cash value basis that makes an adjustment for depreciation.

Coverage for business personal property with constantly changing values is available on a reporting form. The business owner reports values monthly to the insurer and pays premiums based on the values reported. In this way, only the insurance actually needed is purchased.

An entirely different branch of the insurance business has been developed to insure losses that are indirectly the result of one of the specified perils. A prominent example of this type of insurance is business income insurance. The insurer undertakes to reimburse the insured for lost profits or for fixed charges incurred as a result of direct damage. For example, a retail store might have a fire and be completely shut down for one month and partially shut down for another month. If the fire had not occurred, sales would have been much higher, and therefore substantial revenues have been lost. In addition, fixed costs such as salaries, taxes, and maintenance must continue to be paid. A business income policy would respond to these losses.

Forms of indirect insurance include the following: (1) contingent business income insurance, designed to cover the consequential losses if the plant of a supplier or a major customer is destroyed, resulting in either reduced orders or reduced deliveries that force a shutdown of the insured firm, (2) extra expense insurance, which pays the additional cost occasioned by having extra expenses to pay, such as rent on substitute facilities after a disaster, and (3) rent and rental value insurance, covering losses in rents that the owner of an apartment house may incur if the building is destroyed. Rental income insurance pays for rent lost when a peril destroys an owner’s property that has been rented to others.

Marine insurance is actually transportation insurance. After insurance coverage on ocean voyages had been developed, it was a natural step to offer insurance on inland trips. This branch of insurance became known as inland marine. In many policy forms, the distinction between inland and ocean marine has disappeared; it is common to cover goods from the time they leave the warehouse of the shipper, even if this warehouse is situated at a substantial distance from the nearest seaport, until they reach the warehouse of the buyer, which likewise may be located far inland.

Ocean marine contracts are written to cover four major types of property interest: (1) the vessel or hull, (2) the cargo, (3) the freight revenue to be received by the ship owner, and (4) legal liability for negligence of the shipper or the carrier. Hull insurance covers losses to the vessel itself from specified perils. Usually there is a provision that the marine hull should be covered only within specified geographic limits. Cargo insurance is usually written on an open contract basis under which shipments, both incoming and outgoing, are automatically covered for the interests of the shipper, who reports periodically the values exposed and pays a premium based upon these values. By means of a negotiable open cargo certificate, which is attached to the bill of lading, insurance coverage is automatically transferred to whoever has legal title to the goods in the course of their movement from seller to buyer.

Freight revenue may be insured in several different ways. If there is an obligation by the shipper to pay the carrier’s freight bill regardless of whether the goods are delivered, the value of the freight is declared a part of the value of the cargo and is insured as part of this value. If the freight revenue is contingent upon safe delivery of the goods, the carrier insures the freight as a part of the regular hull coverage.

Major clauses or provisions that are fairly standardized are (1) the perils clause, (2) the “running down” clause, or RDC, (3) the “free of particular average,” or FPA, clause, (4) the general average clause, (5) the sue and labour clause, (6) the abandonment clause, (7) coinsurance, and (8) express and implied warranties. Each of these will be discussed in turn.