The markets that corporations serve reflect the great variety of humanity and human wants; accordingly, firms that serve different markets exhibit great differences in technology, structure, beliefs, and practice. Because the essence of competition and innovation lies in differentiation and change, corporations are in general under degrees of competitive pressure to modify or change their existing offerings and to introduce new products or services. Similarly, as markets decline or become less profitable, they are under pressure to invent or discover new wants and markets. Resistance to this pressure for change and variety is among the benefits derived from regulated manufacturing, from standardization of machines and tools, and from labour specialization. Every firm has to arrive at a mode of balancing change and stability, a conflict often expressed in distinctions drawn between capital and revenue and long- and short-term operations and strategy. Many corporations have achieved relatively stable product-market relationships, providing further opportunity for growth within particular markets and expansion into new areas. Such relative market control endows corporate executives and officers with considerable discretion over resources and, in turn, with considerable corporate powers. In theory these men and women are hired to manage someone else’s property; in practice, however, many management officers have come increasingly to regard the stockholders as simply one of several constituencies to which they must report at periodic intervals through the year.
Managerial decision making
The guidelines governing management decisions cannot be reduced to a simple formula. Traditionally, economists have assumed that the goal of a business enterprise was to maximize its profits. There are, however, problems of interpretation with this simple assertion. First, over time the notion of “profit” is itself unclear in operational terms. Today’s profits can be increased at the expense of profits years away, by cutting maintenance, deferring investment, and exploiting staff. Second, there are questions over whether expenditure on offices, cars, staff expenses, and other trappings of status reduces shareholders’ wealth or whether these are part of necessary performance incentives for executives. Some proponents of such expenditures believe that they serve to enhance contacts, breed confidence, improve the flow of information, and stimulate business. Third, if management asserts primacy of profits, this may in itself provide negative signals to employees about systems of corporate values. Where long-term success requires goodwill, commitment, and cooperation, focus on short-term profit may alienate or drive away those very employees upon whom long-term success depends.
Generally speaking, most companies turn over only about half of their earnings to stockholders as dividends. They plow the rest of their profits back into the operation. A major motivation of executives is to expand their operations faster than those of their competitors. The important point, however, is that without profit over the long term no firm can survive. For growing firms in competitive markets, a major indicator of executive competence is the ability to augment company earnings by increasing sales or productivity or by achieving savings in other ways. This principle distinguishes the field of business from other fields. A drug company makes pharmaceuticals and may be interested in improving health, but it exists, first and foremost, to make profits. If it found that it could make more money by manufacturing frozen orange juice, it might choose to do so.
Much has been written about business executives as “organization men.” According to this view, typical company managers no longer display the individualism of earlier generations of entrepreneurs. They seek protection in committee-made decisions and tailor their personalities to please their superiors; they aim to be good “team” members, adopting the firm’s values as their own. The view is commonly held that there are companies—and entire industries—that have discouraged innovative ideas. The real question now is whether companies will develop policies to encourage autonomy and adventuresomeness among managers.
In Japan, where the employees of large corporations tend to remain with the same employer throughout their working lives, the corporations recruit young people upon their graduation from universities and train them as company cadets. Those among the cadets who demonstrate ability and a personality compatible with the organization are later selected as managers. Because of the seniority system, many are well past middle age before they achieve high status. There are signs that the system is weakening, however, as efforts are more often made to lift promising young men and women out of low-echelon positions. Criticism of the traditional method has been stimulated by the example of some of the newer corporations and of those owned by foreign capital. The few individuals in the Japanese business world who have emerged as personalities are either founders of corporations, managers of family enterprises, or small businesspeople. They share a strong inclination to make their own decisions and to minimize the role of directors and boards.
