- Date:
- 1899 - 1902
- Location:
- Batangas
- Luzon
- Mindanao
- Philippines
- Samar
- Participants:
- Filipino
- United States
- Major Events:
- Battle of Manila
Philippine-American War
-
What was the Philippine-American War?
The Philippine-American War was a conflict between the United States and Filipino revolutionaries from 1899 to 1902. It can be viewed as a continuation of the Philippine Revolution against Spanish rule. The war began after the United States gained control of the Philippines from Spain following the Spanish-American War.
The Treaty of Paris in 1898 ceded the Philippines to the United States. However, Filipinos, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, sought independence and did not recognize U.S. sovereignty. This difference in views led to conflict.
Fighting broke out on February 4, 1899, and the war lasted three years. About 20,000 Filipino troops and 200,000 civilians died. The conflict ended in 1902, though sporadic fighting continued for several years.
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When did the Philippine-American War happen?
The Philippine-American War transpired from 1899 to 1902, following the Spanish-American War, when the United States gained control of the Philippines. Filipinos, who had hoped for independence after the defeat of their Spanish colonial rulers, were met with the U.S. annexation of the islands.
Conflict was inevitable, and on the night of February 4, 1899, fighting erupted, marking the beginning of a bloody conflict. The war concluded with a declaration in 1902, though sporadic fighting persisted for several years. The Treaty of Paris in December 1898, transferred Philippine sovereignty from Spain to the United States, which the nascent Philippine Republic did not recognize.
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Why did the conflict between the Philippines and the United States begin?
The Philippine-American War began because Filipino aspirations for independence clashed with U.S. intentions to annex the islands following the Spanish-American War.
After the U.S. defeated Spain in the Spanish-American War, Filipino revolutionaries, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, who had already declared a provisional republic, hoped for independence. However, the U.S. decided to take possession of the Philippines, swayed by strategic, economic, and missionary considerations.
The Treaty of Paris in December 1898 transferred Philippine sovereignty from Spain to the U.S., which the nascent Philippine Republic rejected. On February 4, 1899, tensions erupted into violence, marking the start of the Philippine-American War.
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How did the Philippine-American War affect the Filipino people?
The Philippine-American War significantly impacted the Filipino people. The war resulted in an estimated 20,000 Filipino combatant deaths, and the loss of over 200,000 civilian lives due to combat, hunger, or disease. The conflict emerged from the First Philippine Republic's desire for independence, which clashed with the U.S.'s decision to annex the islands after Spain ceded them in the Treaty of Paris. This led to a bloody war and a long period of guerrilla warfare against U.S. rule. Although the Philippines eventually gained independence, the Bell Trade Act tied the country's economy to the United States, which many Filipinos opposed.
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What was the outcome of the war and how did it change the Philippines?
The Philippine-American War resulted in the defeat of the Filipinos and the continuation of American administration of the islands. The human cost was significant, with approximately 20,000 Filipino combatants killed and over 200,000 civilians dead due to combat, hunger or disease.
The United States gained a stronger foothold in the Philippines through the Bell Trade Act, which tied the Philippine economy to that of the U.S., and through a 99-year lease on military and naval bases. Though the Philippines gained independence in 1946, the Parity Amendment gave U.S. citizens equal rights with Filipinos to exploit natural resources.
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Philippine-American War, war between the United States and Filipino revolutionaries from 1899 to 1902, an insurrection that may be seen as a continuation of the Philippine Revolution against Spanish rule. It began after the United States assumed sovereignty of the Philippines following the defeat of Spain in the Spanish-American War. Although an end to the insurrection was declared in 1902, sporadic fighting continued for several years thereafter.
The end of Spanish rule and the First Philippine Republic
There had been numerous quasi-religious uprisings in the Philippines during the more than 300 years of colonial rule, but the late 19th-century writings of José Rizal and others helped stimulate a more broad-based movement for Philippine independence. Spain was unwilling to reform its colonial government, and armed rebellion broke out in 1896. Rizal, who had advocated reform but not revolution, was shot for sedition on December 30, 1896; his martyrdom fueled the revolution, led by the young general Emilio Aguinaldo.
Another movement for independence from Spanish rule was underway in Cuba, meanwhile. In March 1898, following the destruction of the USS Maine in Havana a month earlier, the United States sent an ultimatum to Spain demanding it accept U.S. arbitration and eventually relinquish its control of Cuba. In preparation for the likelihood of war against Spain, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt placed the U.S. Asiatic squadron in Hong Kong on alert. When war was declared in April, Commodore George Dewey sailed from Hong Kong and defeated the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay on the morning of May 1, but he could not occupy Manila until ground troops arrived three months later.
In the meantime, on June 12, the Filipinos declared independence and proclaimed a provisional republic with Aguinaldo as president. Within days, on the other side of the Pacific, the American Anti-Imperialist League had begun to take shape. This organization, which opposed American involvement in the Philippines, grew into a mass movement that drew support from across the political spectrum. Its members included luminaries such as social reformer Jane Addams, industrialist Andrew Carnegie, philosopher William James, and author Mark Twain.
On August 13 Manila fell after a bloodless “battle.” Spanish Gov. Fermín Jáudenes had secretly arranged a surrender after a mock show of resistance to salvage his honour. American troops were in possession of the city, but Filipino insurgents controlled the rest of the country. The Treaty of Paris(1898), signed by representatives of Spain and the United States in December, transferred Philippine sovereignty from Spain to the United States. But the leaders of the nascent Philippine Republic, who were in actual control of the entire archipelago except Manila, did not recognize U.S. sovereignty over the islands. The United States, meanwhile, rejected Filipino claims of independence. Conflict was inevitable.
On the night of February 4, 1899, shooting erupted on the outskirts of Manila. Morning found the Filipinos, who had fought bravely, even recklessly, defeated at all points. While the fighting was in progress, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation of war against the United States. Anti-imperialist sentiment was strong in the United States, and on February 6 the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty that concluded the Spanish-American War by a single vote. U.S. reinforcements were immediately sent to the Philippines. Antonio Luna, the ablest commander among the Filipinos, was given charge of their military operations but seems to have been greatly hampered by the jealousy and distrust of Aguinaldo, which he fully returned. Luna was murdered, and on March 31 the rebel capital of Malolos was captured by U.S. forces.
In March 1900 U.S. Pres. William McKinley convened the Second Philippine Commission to create a civil government for the Philippines (the existence of Aguinaldo’s Philippine Republic was conveniently ignored). On April 7 McKinley instructed commission chairman William Howard Taft to “bear in mind that the government which they are establishing is designed not for our satisfaction, or for the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness, peace, and prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands.” While nothing explicit was said about independence, these instructions were later often cited as supporting such a goal.
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